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LEPIDOPTERA [Latest
Classification]
Please refer also to the following links for details on this
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Families Further Description References Introduction Lepidoptera.-- Entomophagous behavior
has developed in a large number of families of Lepidoptera, which has
predominantly phytophagous species.
Early summaries were presented by Brues (1936), who also discussed the
manner by which the change from plant to animal feeding probably occurred. Balduf (1931) reviewed information
relating to predatory and parasitic species and later (Balduf 1938) gave an
interesting account of the probable origin and rise of the entomophagous
habit among lepidopterous larvae.
Entomophagous Lepidoptera are thought to be derived mainly from
ancestors that fed on the plant cortex and lichens. Entomophagy in this order is manifested in several ways, by
cannibalism, occasional predation, habitual predation and parasitism. Cannibalism is an occasional diversion
from the normal plant-feeding habit which results mainly from hunger of
thirst. Occasional predation occurs
in two forms, (1) that found among caterpillars of plant-feeding behavior,
which sometimes attack insects beyond their own species, and (2) among scavengers,
which may prey on other species occupying the same habitat. Two forms of habitual predators are, (1)
several families with larvae that feed on Homoptera, and (2) a few species of
Lycaenidae which is phytophagous in early larval instars, but later changes
to predation. Among butterflies, predators are
found only in the Lycaenidae, while among moths it occurs in a large number
of families and varies in extent of its development from occasional or chance
predation to obligatory predation.
The highest development of entomophagous behavior is found in
Epipyropidae, some species being obligate external parasitoids, and
individuals of all species being limited to a single host during larval
development. True parasitism by
members of other families is rare to find (Clausen 1940/1962). The great majority of the hosts of
predaceous Lepidoptera are in the Homoptera:
Aphididae, Cicadellidae, Fulgoridae and Coccidae. Balduf considered that limitation to these
groups was a result of their greater availability as compared with other
phytophagous insects. They occur
generally in all sections and upon a wide variety of plants, and are
frequently present in abundance, and are soft in body and small.
The large order of Lepidoptera includes moths and
butterflies. It has some of the most
species of any order of animals. In
the insects it includes the moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies,
skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies are found almost everywhere. The name
is derived from Ancient Greek λεπίδος (scale)
and aptera
(wing). Including over 160,050 described species, in 127 families and 46
superfamilies, the Lepidoptera show many variations of the basic body
structure, which have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and
distribution. Recent estimates suggest that the order may have more species
and is among the four largest, most successful orders, along with the
Hymenoptera, Diptera, and the Coleoptera. Most species are distinguished by being covered in
scales, having two large compound eyes, and an elongated mouthpart called a
proboscis. Almost all species have membranous wings, except for a few that
have cross vein wings. The larvae are referred to as caterpillars and are
different in shape, having a cylindrical body with a well-developed head,
mandible mouthparts, and from 0–11 pairs of legs. Over millions of years, there has evolved a large range
of wing patterns and colorations ranging from colorless moths to the brightly
colored and complex-patterned butterflies.
Because of this Lepidoptera is the most recognized and popular of
insect orders. Many species of the order are of economic value because of
their importance as pollinators for the silk they produce. The word Lepidoptera derives from the Latin word for "scaly
wing" and from the Ancient Greek λεπίς (lepis) meaning
scale and πτερόν (pteron) meaning
wing. Sometimes the term Rhopalocera is used to group the species that are
butterflies. The origins of the common names of many species vary.
The word butterfly is from Old English buttorfleoge. The species of Heterocera are called
moths. The origins of the word moth may be related to Old English mađa meaning "maggot." Lepidoptera are very successful insects, and are found on
all continents, except the Antarctic. They inhabit all terrestrial habitats
ranging from desert to rainforest, from lowland grasslands to mountain
plateaus. They are mainly associated
with higher plants, especially angiosperms.
The northern-most of butterflies and moths is the Arctic Apollo (Parnassius
arcticus) that ranges in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia, at an
altitude of 1505 meters above sea level. In the Himalayas, some Apollo
species such as Parnassius epaphus, have been found to occur up to an
altitude of 6,000 meters above sea level. Out of the more than 180,050 described species it is
thought that 9 percent are butterflies and skippers with moths making up the
rest. The vast majority of Lepidoptera are to be found in the tropics but a
substantial biodiversity occurs on each continent, with some 11,300 species
found in North America, and over 10,000 species reported from Australia. Lepidoptera are morphologically distinguished from
other orders principally by the presence of scales on the external parts of
the body and appendages, especially the wings. Butterflies and moths vary in
size from only a few millimeters long, to those with a wingspan of many
inches, such as the Monarch butterfly. There are many variations of the basic
body structure, which have evolved over time. Lepidopterans like all Holometabola, undergo complete
metamorphosis, going through a four-stage life cycle: egg; larva /
caterpillar; pupa / chrysalis; and imago (plural: imagines) / adult. The
morphological characteristics that distinguish the order Lepidoptera from
other insect orders are as follows: There are large compound eyes and
mouthparts, the latter usually being modified into a proboscis; scales cover
the external surface of the body and appendages; the prothorax is usually
reduced; there are 2 pairs of wings, which have very few cross veins in most
species; the posterior abdominal segments are modified for reproduction, and
cerci are absent; the larvae are caterpillars and eruciform in shape with a
prominent head and mandibles; prolegs are either absent or 8-10 in number;
the pupae are primarily adecticous and obtect, but sometimes decticous. The larvae, caterpillars, have a sclerotized head
capsule, chewing mouthparts, and a soft body, that may have hair-like or
other projections. There are 3 pairs of true legs, and additional prolegs (up
to 5 pairs). Most caterpillars are herbivores, but some are carnivores of
other insects. Larvae are the feeding
and growing stages that undergo hormone-induced ecdysis, becoming larger with
each instar. . The pupa is referred to as a chrysalis. There are functional mandibles and
appendages that are fused or glued to the body in most species. The larvae of
many species either construct a cocoon with a casing of silk, or pupate
inside them or they will pupate in a subterranean cell. Adults have two pairs of membranous wings that are
usually completely covered by minute scales.
Sometimes the wings are reduced or absent in the female but not the
male. Antennae are conspicuous. In moths, the males often have more feathery
antennae than females. The mouthparts
of adults include a prominent proboscis formed from maxillary structures, and
are adapted for sucking nectar. Some species have reduced mouthparts (some
species do not feed as adults), and others have them modified to pierce and
suck blood or plant fluids. Mandibles in adults are absent in all except the
Micropterigidae that have chewing mouthparts. Adults also have two immobile, compound
eyes, and, only two simple eyes or ocelli, which may be reduced. The three
segments of the thorax are fused and consist of fixed sclerites. The wings
are attached to the thoracic segments and are functionally dipterous due to a
number of wing-locking mechanisms. Some species have flightless females with
reduced wings. Abdominal segments
7–10 or 8–10 form the external genitalia. These genitalia are complex and
diagnostic for most families and also serve
in family identification. The more advanced families have the
abdomen connected to the thorax by
muscles with projections from the second abdominal sternite. Paired hearing
organs at the base of the abdomen occur in the Pyraloidea and Geometroidea.
Males have glandular and expandable organs that look like hairbrushes or
tufts, or as thin-walled, eversible sacs. The wings, head parts of the thorax and abdomen are
covered with tiny scales. Most scales
are lamellar, or blade-like and attached with a pedicel, while in other groups
they may be hair-like or specialized into secondary sexual characteristics.
The lumen or surface of the lamella has a complex structure. It shows color
either due to the pigment colors contained within or due to its
three-dimensional structure. Scales provide a number of functions, including
insulation, thermoregulation, or aiding gliding flight. The most important function is the large
diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide, which gives camouflage,
mimicry, and attracts mates. Species that
undergo complete metamorphosis have a life cycle that usually includes an
egg, larva, pupa, and an imago or adult. The larvae are referred to as
caterpillars, and the pupa of moths is called a cocoons and that of
butterflies a chrysalis. Mating begins
with mate attraction, regularly using visual stimuli, especially in diurnal
species such as most butterflies. However, most nocturnal female species,
including most moths, use pheromones to attract males, sometimes from great
distances. Some have acoustic courtship, or attract mates using sound or
vibration. Sexual reproduction is the most common as is egg
laying. But some species give to
live birth through ovoviviparity. There are differences in egg laying and the
number of eggs laid. Some species with polyphagous larvae drop their eggs in
flight, while most will lay their eggs near or on the host plant that the
larvae feed on. The number of eggs laid varies from only a few to several
thousand. The larvae appear very different from the adults and
come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
They are characterized by an elongated body with 0–11 pairs of
abdominal legs (usually 8) and apical crochets. Most have a well-developed head with mandibles. The larvae eat
every part of the plant, and are considered pests. Some species lay their
eggs on the fruit and others on clothing or fur (e.g., Tineola
bisselliella, the common clothes moth).
In Hawaii there is a carnivorous larva that feeds on flies. Some species are carnivorous and
others are even parasitic. The larvae develop quickly with several
generations per year. Nevertheless,
some species may take up to 3 years to develop. There are about 5-7 instars, or molts, regulated by
certain hormones like prothoracicotropic hormone that stimulates the
production of ecdysone, that initiates molting. Then, the larva puparium,
which is the hardened cuticle of the last larval instar, develops into the
pupa. The pupa may be covered with silk and attached with many different
types of debris or nothing at all. The time it takes for pupae to emerge
varies among species. The adult emerges from the pupa either by using
abdominal hooks or a projection from the head. Most Lepidoptera are terrestrial, but many species of
Pyralidae are aquatic with all stages except the adult living in water. Many
species from other families such as Arctiidae, Nepticulidae, Cosmopterygidae,
Tortricidae, Olethreutidae, Noctuidae, Cossidae and Sphingidae are aquatic or
semi-aquatic. Locomotion in
most species is flight. However, some species merely glide. Flight is
either hovering, or a forward or
backward motion. Navigation is used by migrating species. Butterflies,
that have more species that migrate, navigate using time compensated sun
compasses. They see polarized light and therefore orient even in cloudy
conditions. The polarized light in the region close to the ultraviolet
spectrum is thought to be especially important. Most migratory butterflies are those that occur in semi-arid
areas where breeding seasons are short. The life histories of their host
plants also influence them.
Landscapes may also be used for navigation, such as coastal lines,
mountains, roads etc. When flying over oceans flight direction is more
accurate if the landscape on the coast is still visible. Moths also show navigation by using the
Earth's magnetic field. Some months
can correct a course with changing winds, and prefer flying with favorable
winds. Aphrissa statira in
Panama loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field. Moths tend to circle artificial lights repeatedly,
which suggests that these species use a technique of celestial navigation
called transverse orientation. By maintaining a constant angular relationship
to a bright celestial light, such as the Moon, they can fly in a straight
line. Celestial objects are so far away, that even after traveling great
distances, the change in angle between the moth and the light source is
negligible. Also, the moon is always
in the upper part of the visual field.
When a moth encounters a much closer artificial light and uses it for
navigation, the angle changes noticeably after only a short distance, in
addition to being often below the horizon. The moth attempts to correct by
turning toward the light, causing airborne moths to fly downwards. Moths also may be impaired with a visual
distortion called a Mach band by Henry Hsiao in 1972. He stated that they fly
towards the darkest part of the sky in pursuit of safety and are thus
inclined to circle ambient objects in the Mach band region. Migration is usually seasonal, moving to escape dry
seasons or other adverse conditions. Most species that migrate are
butterflies, varying from short to over long distances. Moths also undergo
migrations. . Some Neotropical species have population explosions and massive
migrations. In Central America, the
first population migrations may begin in July and early August and, depending
on the year, may be very massive, continuing for as long as five months. Lepidoptera are soft bodied, fragile and quite
defenseless, and the immature stages move slowly or are immobile. Therefore, all stages are exposed to
predation. Birds, lizards, amphibians, dragonflies and spiders, besides
others, predate upon adult Lepidoptera. Caterpillars and pupae may be prey,
not only to birds but invertebrate predators, small mammals, as well as fungi
and bacteria. Parasitoid and parasitic wasps and flies may lay eggs in the
caterpillar that would eventually kill it as they hatch inside its body and
eat its tissues. Insectivorous birds are probably the principal predators as
they serve an important food to many insectivorous birds. An evolutionary interaction occurs between predator and
prey species. Lepidoptera have developed a number of strategies for defense
and protections, which include evolution of morphological characters, changes
in ecological life-style and in behavior. These include aposematism, mimicry,
and camouflage, development of threat patterns and displays. Only a few birds, such as the nightjars, hunt nocturnal
Lepidoptera and their main enemy are bats.
Numerous evolutionary adaptations of moths occur to escape from their
main predators, such as the ability to hear ultrasonic sounds, or even to
emit sounds in some cases. Lepidoptera eggs also suffer predation. Some
caterpillars, such as the zebra swallowtail butterfly larvae, are
cannibalistic of larvae of the same species. Some species are poisonous to predators, such as the
Monarch butterfly in America, as well as Papilio
antimachus and the birdwings, the largest butterflies in Africa and Asia
respectively. The toxicity is obtained plant chemicals. However, some species manufacture their
own toxins. A predator that has
previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with
similar markings in the future. Toxic butterflies and larvae usually have bright
colors, striking patterns as an indicator to predators about their toxicity.
This phenomenon is called aposematism.
Other caterpillars emit bad odors to ward off predators. Some
caterpillars, especially members of Papilionidae, have an osmeterium, a
Y-shaped gland that projects and which is found in the prothoracic region of
the larvae. When threatened, the caterpillar emits unpleasant odors from the
organ to ward off the predators. Camouflage and mimicry are also important for defense.
Some species blend into their surroundings, making them difficult to be seen
by predators. Caterpillars can be shades of green that matches the host
plant. Others look like inedible objects, such as twigs or leaves. The larvae
of some species, such as the Common Mormon (Papilio polytes) and the Western Tiger Swallowtail look like bird
droppings. For example, adult Sesiidae species (also called clearwing
moths) have a general appearance that resembles a wasp or hornet cause
a Batesian mimicry. Eyespots are a type of automimicry used by some
lepidopterans. In butterflies, the spots are made up of concentric rings of
scales of different colors. Little is known of ancestral Lepidoptera species
because so few fossils have been found. The earliest known fossil, Archaeolepis
mane is from the Jurassic period, about 192 million years ago. The fossil
consists of a pair of wings with scales that are similar to the wing venation
pattern found in Trichoptera (caddisflies). 2 other sets of Jurassic Lepidopteran
fossils have been found, and 13 sets from the Cretaceous period. The
best-preserved fossil is the Eocene Prodryas persephone from the
Florissant Fossil Beds. Lepidoptera are not common in areas where fossilization
can occur, such as lakes and ponds, and their juvenile stage has only the
hard head capsule that might be preserved. Yet there are fossils, some
preserved in amber and some in very fine sediments. Leaf mines are also seen
in fossil leaves.. The earliest fossil is Archaeolepis mane from the
Jurassic, about 192 million years ago
in Britain. It consists of wings and shows scales with parallel grooves and
the characteristic wing venation pattern shared with Trichoptera. Only two
more sets of Jurassic fossils have been found, and 13 sets in the Cretaceous.
From there, many more fossils are found from the Tertiary, and especially
Eocene Baltic amber Most Lepidoptera are able to pollinate flowers. The adults feed on the nectar
inside flowers, using their proboscis to reach the nectar. In the process, the adult brushes against
the flower's stamen, on which the flower's reproductive pollen is stored. The
pollen is then transferred to the adult that flies to the next flower to
feed, where the pollen germinates and fertilizes the ova. The larvae of Bombyx mori are the silkworms.
They construct cocoons out of silk, which has been important economically. The species Bombyx mori has been
domesticated to where it is completely dependent on humans for survival. However, the species Bombyx mandarina,
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