File:
<spalangi.htm> [For
educational purposes only] Glossary <Principal Natural Enemy Groups > <Citations> <Home> |
HYMENOPTERA, Spalangiinae (Pteromalidae)
(Chalcidoidea) -- <Images>
& <Juveniles> This subfamily was originally a separate family
Spalangiidae. Pteromalidae now also
includes the former separate families, Cleonymidae, Miscogasteridae and
Spalangiidae, which have been designated subfamilies Cleoneminae,
Miscogasterinae and Spalangiinae, respectively. For the present, discussions of these various subfamilies will
be separate because of considerable distinctness among them. Legner (unpub. data) working with parasitoids of synanthropic
Diptera has observed what he regards as a higher degree of sophistication
among species of Spalangia than of
various other pteromalid parasitoids, as manifested by more intense searching
of the host's environment and examination of the host prior to
parasitization. Also, during numerous
laboratory experiments with various species of this genus, they have shown a
degree of learning toward the ultimate goal of escape from the experimental
environment. After repeated handling
their ability to feign death, for example, is remarkable, which frequently
results in their escape from the observer.
There are only a few genera, of which Spalangia is the most commonly encountered. Richardson (1913) listed six species from
dipterous hosts, one from Lepidoptera and two with myrmecophilous
habits. The recording from the
lepidopterous host is probably in error, for the species concerned, S. nigra
Latr, has been frequently recorded from housefly puparia (Bou…ek 1963). Silvestri (1914) recorded several species
from Trypetidae in West Africa. Those
which attack Diptera utilize puparia and are solitary and external in
habit. Clausen (1940) noted that
these are parasitoids of dipterous pupae and consequently are considered
hyperparasitoids only when the particular host species that they attack are
themselves of parasitic habit, although S
drosophilae Ashm., attacking
dung-infesting Diptera, is recorded as attacking Alysia and Psilodora,
which are primary parasitoids of the same hosts. Entomophagous Diptera which form their puparia on or near the
soil surface are frequently attacked by Spalangiidae. Cerocephala
develops on larvae and pupae of the coleopterous families Scolytidae,
Curculionidae, etc. (Clausen 1940/1962). Spalangiidae are valuable in the natural control of synanthropic
Diptera both naturally and through artificial field inundation (please refer
to section on medical/veterinary entomology <bc-37.htm>). Lindquist (1936) recorded up to 64%
parasitization of dung-infesting Diptera, mainly by Spalangia muscidarum
var. stomoxysiae Gir. Biology
and Behavior
Richardson (1913) did an extensive study on S. nigroaenea Curtis (=
S. muscidarum) as a solitary parasitoid of the pupae of housefly, Musca domestica L. In
oviposition, the female crawls over the host puparium, examines it carefully
with the antennae, and then inserts the ovipositor through the puparial wall,
usually in the posterior half. The
body of the larva or pupa within the puparium is not penetrated, and the egg
is placed externally. The 1st instar larva is very active and capable of extended
movement over the surface of the host, which is for the purpose of finding a
suitable feeding point, which usually proves to be the dorsum or dorsolateral
areas of the abdomen (Gerling & Legner 1968). The pupal integument is much thinner at these points and is
more easily punctured than elsewhere.
The 2nd and 3rd instar larvae are relatively more fixed in their
feeding positions in S. cameroni Perkins (Gerling & Legner
1968). When feeding is complete, the
mature larva moves toward the anterior end of the puparium, casts its
meconium and then pupates. The adult
emerges through a hole cut in the anterior end of the puparium (Clausen
1940/1962). An account of S. nigroaenea as a parasitoid of
stablefly, Stomoxys calcitrans L. was given by Pinkus
(1913), which differs in several respects from that by Richardson. Oviposition took place in the anterior
portion of the puparium, usually through a suture. The female was able to detect prior parasitization and would
not deposit a second egg on a host already bearing one. Many of the pupae attacked died, even
though no egg was deposited, which would indicate that the body had been
penetrated by the ovipositor. The
adults mate soon after emergence, and females are able to deposit eggs the
same day.. A minimum life cycle under cool laboratory conditions was found
to be ca. 88 days, but under warmer summer conditions outdoors the cycle is
less than half this duration.
Hibernation was thought to take place in any immature stage, and
development progressed at any time that the temperature became higher again. Spalangia
parasitizing the pupae of Lyperosia
were studied by Handschen (1932, 1934).
These were S. sundaica Graham of Java and S. orientalis
Graham from Australia. S. sundaica
deposited an average of 160-170 eggs during a 4-weeks period. The cycle from egg to adult was completed
in 18-21 days, and males emerged two days earlier than females. Adults were attracted to dung in which the
hosts develop. S. orientalis had the
same general habits and life cycle but produced an average of only 85 eggs
during 15 days. These two
"species" were hybridized in an effort to produce a more effective
"race" that was better adapted to Australian conditions. Female S.
orientalis when mated with male S. sundaica
produced progeny more prolific than either parent form, the average egg
deposition being 240 in 32 days. The
reverse cross produced 100 eggs during 10 days. The fact that the hybrids were fertile and highly fecund, it is
indicative that races instead of species had been studied. Yet Bou…ek (1963) considered S. orientalis
a synonym of S. endius Walk. and S. sundaica a synonym
of S. nigroaenea Curtis. During
three decades of research on Spalangia
and related genera, Legner (unpub. data) has never obtained hybrids between S. cameroni
and S. nigroaenea. Studies with
Australian Spalangia nevertheless
have raised some interesting questions, as for example the reproductive
isolation of a race of S. endius secured from the southeastern
portion of the continent from that of morphologically indistinguishable
isolates from North America. A
morphologically and biologically distinct race from New Zealand, however,
although isolated from the Australian isolate fully interbred with North
American S. endius (Legner 1983). In Cerocephala cornigera Westw., parasitoid of
scolytid larvae and pupae, the female first paralyzes the host and then
places an egg either directly on it or in its immediate vicinity. The ovipositor is usually inserted into
the entrance of the host's oviposition tunnel. Adult feeding habits in the family were studied by Lindquist
(1936) who found that Spalangia muscidarum var. stomoxysiae paid little attention to artificial foods, and the
length of life when confined with puparia suggested host feeding. Parker & Thompson (1925) found such
feeding in S. nigra Latr, where they noted the construction of a feeding tube
(see Host‑feeding>. Life cycles in Spalangiidae are short, ranging from 17 days in S. muscidarum
var. stomoxysiae and S. drosophilae
to 25-30 days in C. cornigera. More than one generation is produced each year, and winter is
passed in the mature larval stage, although Richardson found that S. muscidarum
is in the pupal stage during winter. The developmental life history of Spalangia cameroni
Perkins was presented by Gerling & Legner (1968), with observations on
physiology of ovum formation, and sperm translocation through the male
reproductive system. Pertinent
aspects treated in detail were host-feeding and selection, oviposition,
superparasitization, length of developmental stages, oocyte development,
ovisorption and sperm activation.
Particularly interesting were the interinvolvement of host-feeding and
oviposition, the high moisture requirement for embryonic development and the
100+ feeding punctures made by a larva while feeding ectophagously on the
host pupa encased in the puparium.
There was a prolongation of female pupal development with respect to
the male, a deposition of partially resorbed eggs, two chambers in the
seminal vesicle, and a short duration of testes function. The sex ratio varies with environmental conditions (Legner
1967a,b; 1969, 1979a,b; Legner & Gerling 1967), but females tend to
predominate in a ratio of 2:1 in S.
muscidarum var. stomoxysiae. There has been no thelytoky discovered in this family. For detailed descriptions of immature stages please see (Clausen
1940/1962). References: Please refer
to <biology.ref.htm>, [Additional references may be found at: MELVYL Library] Ables, J. R. & M. Shepard. 1974b.
Responses and competition of the parasitoids Spalangia endius and Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) at different densities of
house fly pupae. Canad. Ent.
106: 825-30. Ables, J. R. & M. Shepard. 1976a.
Seasonal abundance and activity of indigenous hymenopterous
parasitoids attacking the house fly (Diptera: Muscidae). Canad. Ent. 108: 841-44. Ables, J. R. & M. Shepard. 1976b.
Influence of temperature on oviposition by the parasitoids Spalangia endius and Muscidifurax
raptor. Environ. Ent. 5:
511-13. Ables, J. R., R. P. West & M. Shepard. 1975.
Response of the house fly and its parasitoids to Dimilin
(Th-6040). J. Econ. Ent. 68:
622-24. Ables, J. R., M. Shepard and J. R. Holman. 1976.
Development of the parasitoids Spalangia
endius and Muscidifurax raptor in
relation to constant and variable temperature: simulation and validation.
Environ. Ent. 5: 329-32. Abraham, R.
& H. König. Der Einfluss der
Temperatur auf die Anstichaktivität bei Nasonia
vitripennis und Spalangia nigra (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae). Entomophaga 22: 299-308. Azizov,
N. 1972.
Some details on the biology of Spalangia
nigroaenea (Hymenoptera,
Spalangiidae). Zool. Zurn.
51(6): 925-26. [in Russian]. Bathon, H., & K. Fabritius. 1985. Der Fliegenpuppenparasit Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera, Pteromalidae), ein Neufund für die
Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Z. angew.
Zool. 72(3): 343-47. Bloomcamp, C. L. 1985. Development of
resistance to cyromazine in the house fly and its affect on the hymenopteran
pupal parasite, Spalangia endius. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Florida,
Gainesville. 75 p. Blume, R. R.
1987. Bionomics of some
species of the genus Spalangia
Latreille. Southwest. Ent. 12: 191-95. Blume, R. R., S. E. Kunz, B. F. Hogan & J.
J. Matter. 1970. Biological and ecological investigations
of horn flies in central Texas:
influence of other insects in cattle manure. J. Econ. Ent. 63: 1121-23. Boucek, Z.
1963. A taxonomic study in Spalangia Latr. (Hym., Chalcidoidea). Acta Ent. Musei Nation. Pragae, Praha 35: 429-512. Boucek, Z.
1965. Descriptions of new
species of Spalangia Latr. (Hym.,
Chalcidoidea) from Africa and South America with notes on some known
species. Acta Ent. Musei Nation. Pragae, Praha 36: 593-602. Boucek, Z.
1965. A review of the
chalcidoid fauna of the Moldavian S.S.R., with descriptions of new species
(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Acta faun. ent. Musei Nation.
Pragae, Praha 11: 5-38. Boucek, Z.
1965. Contributions to the
Czechoslovak fauna of Chalcidoidea (Hym.).
Acta faun. ent. Musei Nation. Pragae, Praha 12: 231-60. Boucek, Z.
1970. Contribution to the
knowledge of Italian Chalcidoidea, based mainly on a study at the Institute
of Entomology in Turin, with descriptions fo some new European species
(Hymenoptera). Mem. Soc. Ent. Ital.
59: 35-102. Boucek, Z.
1977. A faunistic review of
the Yugoslavian Chalcidoidea (parasitic Hymenoptera). Acta ent.
Jugoslavica, Zagreb 13: 1-145. Burks, B. D.
1969. Species of 'Spalangia' Latreille in the United
States National Museum collection.
Smithson. Contrib. Zool., Washington 2: 1-7. Cabrales,
G., R. Figueroa, F. Uribe & C. I. Trochez. 1985. Evaluación del
efecto del parasitismo por Spalangia
endius W. (Hym. Pteromalidae) sobre
la dinámica de población de Musca domestica L. en galpones para aves (La
Florida-Risaralda). Acta Agronómica,
Palmira 35: 93-105. Capehart, J. S., R. L. Harris & D. E.
Bay. 1981. The effect of host species on developmental time of Muscidifurax raptor and Spalangia drosophilae. Southwest. Ent. 6:
136-9. Chu, F. Y.
1984. Discovery of Spalangia sp.-- a pupal parasite of Musca domestica vicina
Macquart (M. domestica domestica). Natural Enemies of Insects, Kunchong
Tiandi 6: 149 p. [in Chinese]. Donaldson, J. S. & G. H. Walter. 1984.
Sex ratios of Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera; Pteromalidae), in
relation to current theory. Ecol.
Ent., London 9: 395-402. Fullaway, D. T. 1915. Description of a
new species of Spalangia. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 3: 292-94. <SPALANGI.G> Gerling, D.
& E. F. Legner. 1968. Developmental history and reproduction of Spalangia cameroni, parasite of synanthropic flies. Ann. Ent. Soc.
Amer. 61: 1436-43. Gersdorf,
E. 1964. Neues über Spalangia cameroni Grav. (Pter., Chalc., Hym.). Ber.
Naturhist. Ges. Hannover 108: 47-8. Girault, A. A.
1921. New serphoid, cynipoid,
and chalcidoid Hymenoptera. Proc. U.
S. Natl. Mus., Washington, D.C. 58:
177-216. [Spalangia p. 213]. Graham, L. F.
1932. Descriptions of two nes
species of the genus Spalangia
Latreille (Pteromalidae) from northern Australia and the Sunda Islands. In: E. A. Handschin, A preliminary report on
investigations on teh buffalo fly (Lyperosia
exigua De Meij.) and its parasites
in Javan and northern Australia.
Comm. Australia Counc. Sci. Res. Pamph. 31: 24 p. Handschin,
E. 1934b. Studien an Lyperosia exigua Meijere und ihren Parasiten.
III. Teil. Die Anziehung von Spalangia zu ihrem Wirte. Rev. Suisse Zool., Genéve 41: 267-97. Hoelscher, C. E. & R. L. Combs, Jr. 1969.
Laboratory rearing of Spalangia
nigroaenea (Hymenoptera;
Pteromalidae). Florida Ent. 52: 103-5. Ienistea, M. A. & K. Fabritius. 1978.
Emplenota albopila Muls. et Rey und Spalangia endius Walk., Parasiten von Eucellia
tergina Zett. an der
Schwarzmeerküste. Stud. Com. Muz. Brukenthal, St. Nat., Sibiu 22: 339-41. Kochetova, N.
I. & N. Azizov. 1972. A contribution to the biology of Spalangia nigroaenea (Hymenoptera, Spalangiidae), a parasite of
synanthropic flies in the Samarkand area of the Uzbek SSR. Zool. Zhurnal., Moskva 51: 665-70.
[in Russian]. Koval…uk, L. A. 1967. Biological
peculiarities of Spalangia drosophilae Ashm., a parasite of the
frit fly and a primary assessment in the north-west of the USSR, p.
42-7. In:
Mater. nau…noj konf. molodyh u…enyh, Leningrad. [in Russian]. Koval…uk, L. A. 1970. Communication on
research of Spalangia drosophilae, a parasite of frit flies
in the Lettish SSR. Mater. 7. Pribalt. Soveshch. Zashch. Rast., Pt. 1: 40-41.
[in Russian]. Koval…uk, L. A. 1971. Methodical recommendations
for the rearing and use of Spalangia
drosophilae Ashm., a parasite of
frit fly and other flies of the genus Oscinella. Rept. Leningrad. p. 1-19. [in Russian]. Koval…uk, L. A. 1972. Spalangia drosophilae, a parasite of frit flies. Zashch. Rast., Moskva (1972): 23-5.
[in Russian]. Legner, E. F.
1967a. Two exotic strains of Spalangia drosophilae merit consideration in biological control of Hippelates collusor (Diptera: Chloropidae).
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 60(2):
458-462. Legner, E. F.
1967b. Behavior changes the
reproduction of Spalangia cameroni, S. endius, Muscidifurax raptor and Nasonia vitripennis [Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae] at increasing fly host densities. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 60: 819-26. Legner, E.
F. 1969.
Distribution pattern of hosts and parasitization by Spalangia drosophilae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Canad. Ent. 101: 551-57. Legner, E. F.
1979a. Reproduction of Spalangia endius, Muscidifurax raptor and M. zaraptor on fresh
vs. refrigerated fly hosts. Ann.
Entomol. Soc. Amer. 72(1): 155-157. Legner, E. F.
1979b. The relationship
between host destruction and parasite reproductive potential in Muscidifurax raptor, M. zaraptor, and Spalangia endius
[Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae]. Entomophaga 24(2):
145-152. Legner, E.
F. 1983.
Broadened view of Muscidifurax
parasites associated with endophilous synanthropic flies and sibling species
in the Spalangia endius complex. Proc. Calif. Mosq. & Vect. Contr.
Assoc., Inc. 51: 47-48. Legner, E. F.
& D. Gerling. 1967. Host-feeding and oviposition on Musca domestica by Spalangia cameroni, Nasonia vitripennis,
and Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)
influences their longevity and fecundity.
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 60(3):
678-691. Madeira, N. G.
1986. Pupation behaviour of
Calliphoridae (Diptera) in nature and the discovery of the parasite Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Rev. Brasil. Biol. 45: 481-84.
[in Portuguese]. Mandeville, J. D. 1988. Host preference,
fecundity, and longevity of Muscidifurax
zaraptor Kogan and Legner
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) influenced by Musca
domestica L. and Fannia canicularis (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), with notes on parasitism by
Spalangia spp. (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae) in the field. Ph.D.
Thesis, Univ. of California, Riverside. Mandeville, J.
D. & B. A. Mullens. 1990b. Host species and size as factors in
parasitism by Muscidifurax spp. and
Spalangia spp. (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae) in the field. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 83: 1074-83. Marshakov, V.
G. 1983.
The introduced parasite Spalangia
drosophilae Ashm. (Hymenoptera,
Pteromalidae) and its effect in the control of the fritflies. critical analysis. Ent. Obozrenie, Leningrad 52: 245-51.
[in Russian]. McCoy, C. W.
1963. Mass liberation of
laboratory reared parasites, Spalangia
muscidarum (Richardson) for control
of Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) and Musca
domestica (L.) in Lancaster County,
Nebraska. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of
Nebraska, Lincoln. McCoy, C. W.
1965. Biological control studies
of Musca domestica and Fannia
sp. on southern California poultry ranches.
Proc. Calif. Mosq. Contr. Assoc., Inc. 33: 40-2. Merritt, R.
W., E. F. Gersabeck & M. K. Kennedy.
1981. The contribution of
Spalangia endius and Muscidifurax
raptor to a stable fly management
program on Mackinac Island, Michigan:
a question of effort, p. 44-51. In: Patterson, R. S., P. G. Koehler, P. B.
Morgan & R. L. Harris (eds.), Status of Biological Control of Filth
Flies. Proc. Workshop, Feb. 4-5,
1981, Gainesville, Florida. Sci.
Educ. Admin., USDA, Washington, D.C.
212 p. Moon, R. D., I. L. Berry & J. J.
Petersen. 1982. Reproduction of Spalangia cameroni
Perkins (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) on table fly (Diptera; Muscidae) in the
laboratory. J. Kansas Ent. Soc.
55: 77-85. Morgan, P. B.
1980. Sustained releases of Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) for the control of Musca domestica L. and Stomoxys
calcitrans (L.) (Diptera:
Muscidae). J. Kansas Ent. Soc.
53: 367-72. Morgan, P. B.
1980. Mass culturing three
species of microhymenopteran pupal parasites, Spalangia endius
Walker, Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, and Pachycrepoideus vindemiae (Rondani) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Proceedings VIII National Meeting on
Biological Control, Tecoman, Colima, Mexico, April 22‑25, 1980. Morgan, P. B.
1981a. The potential use of
parasites to control Musca domestica L. and other filth breeding
flies at agricultural installations in the southern United States, p.
11-25. In: Patterson, R. S., P.
G. Koehler, P. B. Morgan & R. L. Harris (eds.), Status of Biological
Control of Filth Flies. Proc.
Workshop, Feb. 4-5, 1981, Gainesville, Florida. Sci. Educ. Admin., USDA, Washington, D.C. 212 p. Morgan, P. B.
1981b. Mass production of Spalangia endius Walker for augmentative and/or inoculative field releases,
p. 185-88. In: Patterson, R. S., P.
G. Koehler, P. B. Morgan & R. L. Harris (eds.), Status of Biological
Control of Filth Flies. Proc.
Workshop, Feb. 4-5, 1981, Gainesville, Florida. Sci. Educ. Admin., USDA, Washington, D.C. 212 p. Morgan, P. B. & R. S. Patterson. 1975a.
Field parasitization of house flies by natural populations of Pachycrepoideus vindemiae (Rondani), Muscidifurax
raptor Girault and Sanders, and Spalangia nigroaenes Curtis.
Florida Ent. 58: 202. Morgan, P. B. & R. S. Patterson. 1975b.
Possibilities of controlling stable flies and house flies with
protelean parasitoids. Proc. 46th
Ann. Mtg. Florida Anti-Mosquito Contr. Assoc., Ft. Meyers. p. 29-35. Morgan, P. B. & R. S. Patterson. 1977.
Sustained release of Spalangia
endius to parasitize field
populations of three species of filth breeding flies. J. Econ.
Ent. 70: 450-52. Morgan, P. B. & R. S. Patterson. 1978.
Facilities for culturing microhymenopteran pupal parasitoids, p.
32-3. In: N. C. Leppla & T.
R. Ashley (eds.), Facilities for Insect Research and Production. Tech. Bull., U. S. Dept. Agr. No. 1576. Morgan, P. B. & R. S. Patterson. 1986.
The interrelationship between non-sting parasitoid wasps
(Pteromalidae: Hymenoptera) and dung inhabiting flies (Muscidae: Diptera), p.
165. In: Abstracts of the First International Congress of Dipterology,
Budapest, Hungary. Morgan, P. B. & R. S. Patterson. 1989.
Efficiency of target formulations of pesticides plus augmentative
releases of Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae) to suppress populations of Musca
domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) at
poultry installations in the southeastern United States. In:
R. S. Patterson & D. A. Rutz (eds.), Biocontrol of Arthropods Affecting
Livestock and Poultry. Ent. Soc. of
Amer. Misc. Pub. (Accepted by R. S.
Patterson, February 13, 1989). Morgan, P. B.,
R. S. Patterson, G. C. LaBrecque, D. E. Weidhaas & A. Benton. 1975a. Suppression
of a field population of houseflies with Spalangia
endius. Science 189: 388-89. Morgan, P. B., R. S. Patterson, G. C.
LaBrecque, D. E. Weidhaas, A. Benton & T. Whitefield. 1975b.
Rearing and release of the house fly pupal parasite Spalangia endius Walker. Environ.
Ent. 4: 609-11. Morgan, P. B., R. S. Patterson & G. C.
LaBrecque. 1976a. Controlling house flies at a dairy
installation by releasing a protelean parasitoid, Spalangia endius
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). J.
Georgia Ent. Soc. 11: 39-43. Morgan, P. B., R. S. Patterson & G. C.
LaBrecque. 1976b. Host-parasitoid relationship of the house
fly, Musca domestica L. and the protelean parasitoid, Spalangia endius Walker
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae and Diptera: Muscidae). J. Kansas Ent. Soc. 49:
483-88. Morgan, P. B., A. Benton & R. S.
Patterson. 1976c. The potential use of parasites to control
flies in the Caribbean area. Virgin Islands
Agr. Fd. Fair. p. 43. Morgan, P. B., R. S. Patterson & G. C.
LaBrecque. 1977. Controlling houseflies at a dairy
installation by releasing a protelean parasitoid, Spalangia endius
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). J.
Georgia Ent. Soc. 11: 39-43. Morgan, P. B., G. C. LaBrecque & R. S.
Patterson. 1978a. Mass culturing the microhymenopteran
parasite Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). J. Med. Ent. 14: 671-3. Morgan, P. F.,
C. C. LaBrecque, D. E. Weidhaas & R. S. Patterson. 1979a.
Interrelationship between two species of muscoid flies and the pupal
parasite Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). J. Med. Ent. 16: 331-34. Morgan, P. B.,
D. E. Weidhaas & R. S. Patterson.
1981a. Programmed
releases of Spalangia endius and Muscidifurax raptor
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) against estimated populations of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae).
J. Med. Ent. 18: 158-66. Morgan, P. B.,
D. E. Weidhaas & R. S. Patterson.
1981b. Host-parasite
relationship: augmentative releases of Spalangia
endius Walker used in conjunction
with population modeling to suppress field populations of Musca domestica L. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae and Diptera:
Muscidae). J. Kansas Ent. Soc.
54: 496-504. Morgan, P. B., B. J. Smittle & R. S.
Patterson. 1986. Use of irradiated pupae to mass culture
the microhymenopterous pupal parasitoid Spalangia
endius Walker (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). I. Musca
domestica L. (Diptera:
Muscidae). J. Ent. Sci. 21: 222-27. Morgan, P. B., H. Hoyer & R. S. Patterson
1989. Life History of Spalangia cameroni (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), a microhymenopteran pupal
parasite of muscoid flies (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Kans. Ent. Soc. 62: 381-386 Morgan, P. B., E. Berti-Filho & V. A.
Costa. 1991. Life history of Spalangia gemina Boucek
(hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) a fast-breeding microhymenopteran pupal
parasitoid of muscoid flies. Med. and
Vet. Ent. 5: 277-281. Nakasuji, F.
1963. Spalangia nigra
Latreille, new to Japan. Kontyu, Tokyo 31:
248. [in Japanese]. Nakasuji, F.
1965. Difference of the
activity of hymenopterous parasites with special reference to the depth of
the pupation site of fly larvae. Kontyu, Tokyo 33:
441-45. [in Japanese]. Nakata, G.
1958. Studies on the fly
control in winter seasons, with special reference to the biology of overwintering
fly pupae and their hymenopterous parasites.
Eisei Gaichu [Insects Injurious to Health, Kyoto] 3: 1-26.
[in Japanese]. Petersen, J. J., J. A. Meyer, D. A. Stage &
P. B. Morgan. 1983. Evaluation of sequential releases of Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) for control of house flies and
stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) associated with confined livestock in
eastern Nebraska. J. Econ. Ent. 76:
283-86. Pinkus, H.
1913. The life history and
habits of Spalangia muscidarum Richardson, a parasite of
the stable fly. Psyche 20: 148-58.
[Rev. Appl. Ent. B-2: 22]. Propp, G. D.
1986. Characterization of
intra- and interspecific isoenzyme variation in Spalangia spp. and Muscidifurax
spp. (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae), parasitoids of synanthropic Diptera, p.
164-74. In: R. S. Patterson &
D. A. Rutz (eds.), Biological Control of Muscoid Flies. Misc. Publ. Ent. Soc. Amer. 61: 164-74. Propp, G. D. & P. D. Morgan. 1983.
Superparasitism of house fly, Musca
domestica L., pupae by Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Environ. Ent. 12: 561-66. Propp, G. D. & P. B. Morgan 1983.
Multiparasitism of house fly, Musca
domestica L., pupae by Spalangia endius Walker and Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Environ. Ent. 12: 1232‑1238. Propp, G. D. & P. B. Morgan. 1984.
Multiparasitism of house fly, Musca
domestica L., pupae by Spalangia endius Walker and Muscidifurax
raptor Girault and Sanders
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Environ.
Ent. 12: 1232-38. Propp, G. D. & P. B. Morgan. 1984.
Effect of parasitoid/host ratio on superparasitism of house fly pupae
(Diptra: Muscidae) by Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). J. Kansas Ent. Soc.
57: 617-21. Propp, G. & P. B. Morgan. 1985.
Effect of host distribution on parasitoidism of housefly (Diptera:
Muscidae) pupae by Spalangia spp.
and Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). Canad. Ent. 117: 515-24. Propp, G. D. & P. B. Morgan.
1985. Effect of
parasitoid/host ratio on superparasitism of house fly pupae (Diptera:
Muscidae) by Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). J. Kans. Ent. Soc. 57:
617‑621. Richardson, C. H. 1913a. Studies on the
habits and development of a hymenopterous parasite, Spalangia muscidarum
Rich. J. Morphol. 24: 513-49.
[Rev. Appl. Ent. B-2: 23]. Richardson, C. H. 1913b. An undescribed
hymenopterous parasite of the house fly.
Psyche 20: 38-9. [Rev. Appl. Ent. B-1: 94]. Robinson, J.
1977. Spalangia subpunctata
Förster (Hym., Pteromalidae) parasitising Hydrotaea
irritans Fall. (Dipt., Muscidae).
Ent. Mon. Mag., Oxford 112:
137. Schmidt, C. D.
& P. B. Morgan. 1978. Parasitism of pupae of the horn fly, Haematobia irritans (L.), by Spalangia
endius Walker. Southw. Ent. 3: 69-72. Scott, J. G., D. A. Rutz & J. Walcott. 1988.
Comparative toxicity of seven insecticides to adult Spalangia cameroni Perkins. J. Agr. Ent. 5:
139-45. Shibles, D. B.
1969. Muscidifurax raptor
Girault & Sanders, Spalangia endius Walker, and related species
(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) as parasites of house flies in New Jersey. Ph.D. Thesis, Rutgers State Univ., New
Brunswick, New Jersey. 87 p. Siafacas,
V. 1980.
Biology of Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae), a pupal parasite of the house fly, Musca domestica L. M.S. Thesis, North Carolina St. Univ.,
Raleigh. 73 p. Simmonds, F. J. 1953b. Observations on
the biology and mass-breeding of Spalangia
drosophilae Ashm. (Hymenoptera:
Spalangiidae), a parasite of the frit-fly, Oscinella frit
(L.). Bull. Ent. Res. 44: 773-78. Simmonds, F. J. 1954. Host finding and
selection by Spalangia drosophilae Ashm. Bull. Ent. Res. 45: 527-37. Simmonds, F. J. 1956. Superparasitism
by Spalangia drosophilae Ashm. Bull.
Ent. Res. 47: 361-76. Simmonds, H. W. 1929a. Introduction of Spalangia cameroni, parasite of the housefly, into Fiji. J. Dept. Agric. Fiji 2: 35 p.
[Rev. Appl. Ent. B-17: 209]. Simmonds, H. W. 1929b. Introduction of
natural enemies against the house fly in Fiji. J. Dept. Agric. Fiji 2:
46 p. [Rev. Appl. Ent.
B-17: 235]. Simmonds, H. W. 1940. Investigations
with a view to the biological control of houseflies in Fiji. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 17: 197-99.
[Rev. Appl. Ent. B-29: 57]. Stafford, K. C., III, C. W. Pitts & T. L.
Webb. 1984. Olfactometer studies of host seeking by the parasitoid Spalangia endius Walker ([Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae]). Environ. Ent. 13: 228-31. Thornberry, F. D. & C. L. Cole. 1978.
A field evaluation of the effectiveness of the parasitic wasp, Spalangia endius in controlling the common house fly. Poultry Sci., Menasha 57: 1167-68. Tingle, F. C. & E. R. Mitchell. 1975.
Seasonal reproduction of Muscidifurax
raptor and Spalangia endius under simulated
Florida conditions. Environ. Ent.
4: 383-84. Weidhaas, D. E., D. G. Haile, P. B. Morgan
& G. C. LaBrecque. 1977. A model to simulate control of house flies
with a pupal parasite, Spalangia endius. Environ. Ent. 6: 489‑500. Wylie, H.
G. 1972a.
Oviposition restraint of Spalangia
cameroni (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae) on parasitized housefly pupae.
Canad. Ent. 104: 209-14. Yust, K.
1970. Preliminary studies on
the release of the microhymenopteran parasitoid Spalangia endius
(Pteromalidae) in northwest Arkansas, U.S.A. poultry houses. J. Kan. Ent.
Soc. 52: 552. |