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Introduction Human beings have
always chewed or smoked various substances for pleasure, for some
physiological effect, in connection with religious ceremonies or in an effort
to seek a flight from reality (Hill 1952).
Although a few of these such as chewing gum are harmless, the majority
of the materials that are smoked or chewed have a distinct stimulating or
even narcotic effect. This is due to
the presence of various alkaloids.
Betel, Cola and tobacco are less immediately harmful to the user than
opium, cannabis and coca. The latter
are true narcotics that contain alkaloids, which are detrimental even in
small amounts. If used in greater
quantities they may lead the addict to a low state of depravity and
degradation by causing stupor, coma, convulsions and even death. Tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, has become an
important commodity worldwide even as evidence mounts of the serious side
effects on health through its carcinogenic properties. Tobacco is native to the Neotropical
region, but the original wild ancestor has not been found. It has been under cultivation for
centuries. The Amerindians originated
the use of tobacco in connection with religious ceremonies. The plant had spread over North America in
Pre-Columbian times. The first
expedition of Columbus to America reported its use by the Amerindians. Tobacco was introduced into Europe in 1156
but at first was grown only for ornamental and medicinal values. Jean Nicot, for whom the genus was named,
was responsible for its development in France. From there it spread rapidly over the rest of Europe and into
Africa, Asia and Australia. Smoking
tobacco only became general after 1586, but ever since its popularity increased
despite opposition from religious groups and governments that almost taxed tobacco
products into extinction. Some
evidence suggests that tobacco was used in Ancient Egypt (see Mummy). The slight narcotic and soothing
properties of tobacco come from the alkaloid nicotine. This active principle is absorbed by the
mucous membranes of the nose and throat.
Essential oils and other aromatic substances that develop during the
curing and fermentation process cause the aroma and flavor. Out of the some 50 species of
tobacco known, only two have gained commercial importance. Nicotiana tabacum accounts for most
of the production. This was the
native tobacco of the West Indies and most of Central and South America. Originally a tropical plant, it has become
adapted to cultivation in the temperate region also, and has been grown
wherever climate permits. There have
been over 100 horticultural varieties developed. Tobacco is an attractive unbranched annual growing to a height
of 3-6 ft. with large oval, usually sessile leaves with clasping bases. The branching inflorescence bears pink
flowers. The fruit is a capsule with
many very tiny seeds. The leaves and
stems are covered with glandular hairs that secrete a resinous fluid and are
sticky to the touch. Nicotiana rustica is a
smaller and hardier species with yellow flowers. It is thought to have originated in Mexico and still grows wild
in parts of North America. This
species was cultivated and smoked by Amerindians in Eastern North America in
Pre-Columbian times. It was the first
tobacco to be grown in Virginia, but soon was replaced by N. tabacum. However, it continued to be produced in
Central Europe, Northern Asia and the East Indies. This tobacco was used both for insecticidal and smoking
purposes. Production of
tobacco is highly specialized. The
several types differ in their cultural requirements as to moisture,
temperature, sunlight, soil and fertilizer.
They also differ in methods of harvesting, curing and handling. The very tiny seeds are planted in seed
beds and seedlings are transplanted when they are 4-6 in. high. A light sandy loam rich in humus and well
fertilized with potash, lime and other essential elements is desirable. Continuous cultivation is necessary. Tobacco that will be used as cigar
wrappers is usually grown in the shade that insures a more uniform
product. Once the plants have begun
to grow, the terminal bud is removed to direct strength to the leaves. Frequently inferior leavs and suckers are
also removed. When fully ripe, as
indicated by a change in the color of the leaves, either the entire plant is
cut off or the leaves are harvested, one by one, as they mature in the case
of cigar-wrapper production. The newly
harvested plants or leaves are wilted and then are suspended in an inverted
position from a framework in curing barns.
There are two main methods for curing: air curing and flue curing.
Fire- and sun curing are less common. Air curing is a slow process
carried out under mostly natural conditions in well-ventilated barns. The temperature and humidity must be
carefully controlled. Artificial heat
is applied only in unfavorable weather.
Flue curing is a much faster process that is done in small barns with
furnaces. Flue-cured tobacco develops
a typical bright yellow color, while fire curing involves drying over fires
of charcoal or hardwood. They are virtually
smoked without much increase in temperature.
During this process they develop the odor of creosote. This is the oldest method of curing and
was practiced by the Amerindians. Sun
curing is done in the open and used mainly in Turkey and the Orient. Curing is actually an oxidation
process or dry fermentation, during which the leaves lose most of their water
and green color and become tougher.
Certain changes in chemical composition take place that are necessary
for the development of the desired quality.
Curing usually requires from 3-6 months. Freshly cured leaves are then sorted, fermented or “sweated,”
and aged before manufacturing. This
task is generally accomplished in warehouses after the leaves have been
graded. They are either piled up in
large heaps or pressed into special containers. This phase may take from six months to three years, during
which time the aroma and odor are developed.
Undesirable traits are eliminated and the color and burning qualities
are enhanced. The proper
grading of tobacco is a specialized task done by experienced personnel. A single crop may yield as many as 50
different grades. Various “classes”
are recognized based on the method of curing and in the case of cigar tobacco
on the use. The regions in which they
are produced usually designate the types and the grades are based on use,
texture, color, quality and other traits.
Seven common classes are:
Class 1 (Flue cured); Class 2 (Flue cured); Class 3 (Air cured Light
and Air cured Dark); Class 4 (Cigar Filler); Class 5 (Cigar Binder); Class 6
(Cigar Wrapper); Class 7 (Misc.). Tobacco may be used in
several ways. The Amerindians used
all snuff, chewing tobacco and smoking tobacco. Cigars and cigarettes were later developments. Throughout all the steps of manufacturing,
especially in the case of cigarettes, it is necessary to maintain optimum
moisture content. Adding various
hygroscopic agents such as glycerin does this. These are called “humectants.”
There is a great variety of
flavoring and conditioning materials added to make chewing and smoking
tobacco. These affect the taste and
smoking qualities. They are utilized
as a “sauce” in which the leaves are immersed or as a “spray.” Among them are licorice paste, sugar,
honey, molasses, rum and tonka beans.
Deer’s tongue, and old favored flavoring, consists of the powdered
leaves of Trilisa odoratissima, the wild vanilla of the southeastern
United States. With tonka beans the
flavor is due to the presence of coumarin. Blending which involves the use of
different grades of leaf is also an important feature in manufacturing. Perique and Latakia are common ingredients
imported from Syria. Snuff is made by grinding up dark
air and fire cured leaves to a powder.
The poorer grades and waste are often utilized. Chewing tobacco is made from
Burley, a dark air cured and flue-cured tobacco. It requires leaves that are rich in flavor, tough, gummy and
highly absorptive to the various flavoring materials that are added. It was an early development of the
industry, reaching its maximum production in the early 1900’s. Navy plug is very sweet and thick and
consists of filler with a wrapper. Smoking tobacco is prepared from
heavily sauced blends of Burley, flue cured and other tobaccos or from mildly
flavored straight Burley. Granulated
tobacco, the oldest type, is blended whereas the plug cuts lacking wrappers
consist of Burley. Cigars were manufactured before
cigarettes and reached their height of consumption in 1930. Formerly made by hand, they are now
machine made except for the most expensive brands. Three grades of tobacco are utilized: fillers, binders and wrappers, all of which are air cured. Tobacco for fillers must have a sweet
pleasant flavor and burn evenly with a firm white ash. For wrappers leaves free from flavor are
required. They must also be thin and
elastic with small veins and uniform in color. Individual leaves are picked for this. Cigarettes require light colored
leaves that lack gummy substances and have been either air or flue
cured. The most spectacular phase of
the tobacco industry had been the development of the cigarette. The first cigarettes were made from
straight Virginia, flue cured or Burley tobacco. Today properly aged leaves are used and the stems are removed by
hand or by machine. The moisture
content is then increased to from 18-20 percent and the various grades are blended. Although the actual formulas are trade
secrets, generally cigarettes contain about 53 percent flue cured tobacco, 33
percent Burley and 10 percent oriental and 4 percent Maryland. The leaves are then run through a cutting
machine where they are shredded and dried.
During the process the “casing” consisting of licorice, sugar,
glycerin and various flavorings is added.
Cigarette paper is made from flax fiber. Most
production of tobacco has been in the United States. This crop was first grown in 1612 and was
first exported in 1618 from Jamestown.
From the very beginning tobacco was the backbone of the Virginia
colony and even served as currency. A
culture grew up around its cultivation in tidewater Virginia which has never
been equaled in America and which flourished for two centuries. Following the American Revolution the
industry declined, owing to competition of other countries and to soil
depletion. Gradually the industry
moved westward from the Piedmont region of Virginia and North Carolina. Tobacco has been grown in New England to
some degree from the earliest days, but the crop has been important only
since 1795. Later specialization
confined the industry to certain areas that were better suited to one kind of
tobacco or the other. The crop was
grown commercially in 21 different states, with Kentucky and North Carolina
producing about 60 percent of the total. Despite the large domestic
production a considerable quantity of tobacco has been imported, principally
oriental types for use in cigarettes. Other large tobacco producing
countries included China, India, Russia, Indonesia, Brazil, Turkey, Italy and
Japan. Some areas, such as Cuba,
produce an exceptionally high quality tobacco. Tobacco extracts from low grades
of fire- and dark air-cured leaves has been exported for making chewing
tobacco. Nicotiana rustica has been grown as the
source of nicotine that is extracted for use as an insecticide. Rutin, ordinarily obtained from buckwheat,
is also present in tobacco leaves.
Nicotine sulfate had been an important insecticide until the
development of organophosphorous compounds. The chewing of betel nuts, or areca nuts, has been and still is widespread especially in
Asia. By 1952 over 400-million were
estimated to use this product. The
widespread occurrence of the habit indicates its antiquity. Herodotus first described it in 340 B.C.
(Hill 1952). In India, where it is
called Pan over 100-thousand tons of the nuts are used
annually. There it plays an important
role in the daily life of the inhabitants. Betel nuts are the seeds of the
betel nut palm, Areca catechu.
It is native to Malaya but is extensively cultivated wherever the nuts
are used. Chewing the betel nut can
be quite a complex process. A simple
and most usual method involves the use of only three ingredients: betel nuts, betel leaves and lime. Slices are cured if the nuts are not
wholly ripe or ripe nuts are placed in the mouth. Then fresh leaves of the betel pepper, Piper betle, are coated with lime
and chewed with the nuts. This
practices always follows dinner or is done as a breath freshener. It has not been shown to be harmful but
may even aid in digestion. Often
mixtures of the nuts with cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, nutmeg or other spices
are utilized. Another way of chewing
betel involves the addition of tobacco. Seeds of the cola tree, Cola nitida, are known as cola or
kola nuts. They are extensively used
in many parts of tropical Africa for chewing. The tree is tall with a straight trunk that can reach a height
of over 50 ft. It grows wild in the
forests of tropical West Africa. It
is also cultivated in this region and the adjacent Sudan, and has been
introduced into Brazil, India, Jamaica and parts of tropical Asia. The fruit consists of star-shaped
follicles that contain eight hard, Plano convex, fleshy seeds with a reddish
color and the odor of roses. These
are marketed fresh and are usually chewed directly, although powdered nuts
may be used. Cola has played an important role
in the social, religious and commercial life of the Africa natives. It was first reported in the 12th Century. The nuts are in great demand and the
natives will go to considerable trouble to obtain them. Although they have a bitter initial taste
they leave a sweet taste in the mouth after chewing. Using this product results in a slight
stimulation and temporary increase in physical capacity. It is reported to lower hunger and
fatigue. Cola is a very complex
caffeine-containing product. It not only
contains two percent caffeine, but an essential oil and a glucoside, kolanin,
as well. The stimulating effect of cola is in part due to the caffeine and in
part to the kolanin that acts as a heart stimulant. Old cola nuts tend to lose their kolanin. Chewing cola nuts has no effect on consciousness
and produces no known deleterious results. Narcotic
plants contain alkaloids that are valuable in medicine when used in
exceedingly small amounts. They are
used to relieve pain, produce sleep and quiet anxiety. However, serious physiological effects can
easily result if they are not used with the utmost discretion. Narcotic drugs vary markedly in
their effects on the human body.
Cocaine and opium act as sedatives on mental activity and bring about
a state of physical and mental comfort.
A lowering, and even suspension, of emotion and perception,
accompanies this. Sometimes complete
suppression of consciousness results.
Cannabis, peyote, fly agaric, caapi and the solanaceous narcotics
cause cerebral excitation and cause hallucinations, visions and
illusions. Their use causes intoxication
and may be accompanied or followed by unconsciousness or other symptoms of
abnormal brain function. Kavakava is
a sleep-producing drug that also produces a hypnotic state. Coca, Erythroxylon coca, is the source of the
drug cocaine. Chewing or the whole
or finely powdered leaves of the plant is an ancient custom among the
Amerindians of the Andes and the western half of the Amazon Basin. The plant was highly esteemed by the Incas
who used it as an emblem of royalty (Hill 1952). The use of coca gradually spread among the common people in
South America and Pizarro found it in widespread use in 1553. Some evidence suggests that cocaine was
used in Ancient Egypt (see Mummy). The use of coca aids one to resist
physical and mental fatigue and to work for long periods without food or
drink. The average consumption is
25-50 grams daily. The chewing of
coca is followed after a short period of rest by greatly stimulated
activity. The narcotic acts directly
on the central nervous system, causing immediate psychic exaltation to such
an extent that the consumer is able to forget hunger or other pain. It is habit forming and may lead to
physical deterioration, sickness and even death as it favors malnutrition. The leaves are chewed with lime and the
highly alkaline ashes of some plant, such as quinoa or cecropia leaves. The plant is widely cultivated on the
eastern slopes of the Andes from Colombia to Argentina. It has also been cultivated in Java and
India. Opium is an ancient narcotic that
is the dried juice that exudes from injured capsules of the Opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. Its origin is probably Asia Minor, but it
has spread to the West. The Greeks,
Romans and Egyptians and probably the early Lake Dwellers of Switzerland knew
the drug. It had also reached Iran,
India and China by the 8th Century.
When properly utilized, opium and the alkaloids derived from it are
valuable medicinally and have proved a blessing to humans in the relief of
pain. Excessive use of the drug and
the resulting opium addiction has been and continue to be the cause of
unbelievable suffering. No other drug
has caused so much corruption and tragedy.
In spite of every effort to stamp out the habit it has increased
worldwide. By 1952 it was estimated
that 900-million people were using opium as a drug. In India opium has usually been
eaten and the habit was common to all classes of society. So great has been the demand that the
cultivation of the opium poppy continues as one of the most profitable
industries in Pakistan and Afghanistan especially. During earlier times of the trade, the Dutch, Portuguese and
English openly exploited opium. Later
the various governments began strict regulation of its availability. However, the recent invasion of
Afghanistan by Western nations has led to a breakdown in curtailing the
production of opium poppies, so that by 2003 the crop is once again spreading
among farmers in rural areas. In China the usual method of
consumption was opium smoking by placing a small pellet in the bowl of a
special pipe and inhaling the fumes.
In this way more morphine is said to be absorbed and the effects on
the body may be greater. In Europe and the United States,
although opium, morphine, heroin, codeine and other derivatives are used as
medicines, the smuggling and use of these narcotics are matters of utmost
concern. The hemp plant, Cannabis sativa, is the source of a
textile fiber and a drying oil also yields a narcotic drug. The dried flowering tops of females
plants, pressed together into solid masses, constitute the official “cannabis
indica.” The drug can be used in
medicine to relieve pain and in the treatment of hysteria and various nervous
disorders. The active principle is
resinous in nature and contains 3-4 very powerful alkaloids. Hemp is frequently cultivated solely as a
drug plant. This is especially true
in India where hemp growing has developed to the level of a science. The use of hemp as a narcotic is old and
extends back to 3,000 B.C., first in China and later in India. The plant was used by the Assyrians and
was known to Herodotus. Indian hemp is consumed in various
ways. The pure, undiluted sticky
yellow resin, which is naturally exuded from the flowering tops of cultivated
female plants, is known as charas or hashish. Formerly the resin was obtained by rolling
or treading on the leaves or by having natives run quickly through a mass of
the plants. The resin stuck to the
body or clothes of the runner and was subsequently removed. Today it is carefully pressed out of the
flowering tops between layers of cloth and then scraped off. Charas is smoked. It is the most powerful form of the drug. Bhang consists of the tops of wild plants,
which have lower resin content in a water or milk mixture. It is also smoked. In America this type of hemp is known as
"marijuana". Ganja is a specially
cultivated and harvested grade of hemp used for smoking and in beverages and
candies. It has high resin
content. Some evidence suggests that
marijuana was used in Ancient Egypt (see Mummy). Cannabis in its different forms
can produce serious side effects for the consumer. It causes a stupefying and hypnotic effect, accompanied by
hallucinations, agreeable and often erotic dreams, and a general state of
ecstasy. Addicts while under the
influence of the drug may show emotions of happiness, be noisy or may even
become fanatical and commit murder.
However, when used in moderation it seems not to be harmful. Prolonged use of the drug produces larger
breasts in males. The
cactus, Lophophora
williamsii,
is the source of peyote or mescal buttons. It is indigenous to northern Mexico and
the southwestern United States. It
occurs on dry, arid plateaus in a limited area bordering on the Rio
Grande. This cactus has the
appearances of a large carrot with all parts of the plant, except a button
like top, below the ground. These
tops are round and flattened and are wrinkled. They do not bear spines but little tufts of silky hairs. Some of the buttons are very tiny while
others may reach over 3 in. in diameter. Peyote contains several powerful
alkaloids with narcotic properties.
Amerindians of the region have used peyote for hundreds of years
during their religious ceremonies.
Despite serious opposition the habit is actively practiced among some
Amerindian groups that still maintain a sacred cult. The buttons are chewed in either the fresh
or dried state until they are soft.
They are then rolled up in the hand into little pellets, which are
swallowed. A beverage may also be prepared
by boiling the buttons. Peyote
produces a state of ease and well-being, accompanied by visions and hypnotic
trances. Users find themselves in a
world full of new sensations and pleasures.
Peyote also has also been used extensively for its presumed medicinal
value as it is supposed to cure bodily ills. Fly
Agaric, Amanita
muscaria,
is known in Asia, America and Europe as one of the most poisonous fungi. Despite this quantities of this mushroom
are consumed in Siberia and other parts of Northeastern Asia for its
intoxicating effect. Dried agarics
are chewed until soft, rolled into cylinder like pieces and swallowed. At other times they are used in milk,
water or the juice of berries as a beverage.
Using this fungus produces hallucinations and illusions accompanied by
giddiness, involuntary words and actions and finally unconsciousness. Two small fungi are enough to produce an
intoxication that will last a whole day.
Prolonged use of this narcotic will completely shatter the nervous
system, yet cravings for the drug among its addicts is very great. The native people of southwestern
Mexico were using a narcotic plant in religious ceremonies and as an
intoxicant in Pre-Columbian times.
Ololiuqui is a decoction made from the seeds of Rivea corymbosa, a woody vine
resembling morning glory. It is still
used primarily in Oaxaca in medicine as a means of divination and as a
narcotic. Ololiuqui induces a
hypnotic sleep or coma with hallucinations and a feeling of ecstasy, but with
no unpleasant aftereffects. Amerindians living in the Amazon
Basin utilize Banisteriopsis
caapi, B.
inebrians, B. quilensis and
species of the genus Tetrapterys as the source of a narcotic beverage. These plants are called caapi in Brazil, ayahusca in Peru & Ecuador and yaje in
Columbia. They are lianas that grow
naturally in the virgin forests and are sometimes cultivated in native
villages. To prepare the beverage the
lower part of the stem is cut off, cleaned, macerated and boiled or utilized
as a cold decoction. Caapi is used in
religious ceremonies. It produces
visions, dreams and other mental disorientations. It is also an excitant and induces courage. Certain plants in the family
Solanaceae contain alkaloids that produce disorders of the brain and
excitation when smoked or consumed.
These narcotics are often responsible for some of the incomprehensible
acts of fanatics in the East and elsewhere. The genus Datura has been and still is
extensively used in all the continents except Australia for its narcotic and
hypnotic properties. The Jimson weed, Datura stramonium, the source of the
drug stramonium, was known as a narcotic as early as 37 A.D. (Hill
1952). It is still a favorite source
for “knockout drops” in the tropics. The Maikoa,
D.
arborea,
and Datura
sanguinea
are
subtropical shrubs of South America that have been used by various groups of
the westernmost Amazon Region for their narcotic properties. The Aztecs in
Mexico as a medicine and in their religious ceremonies used Datura innoxia. It is still used by some of the local
inhabitants. Other species are also
used elsewhere, all of them producing comparable effects, such as sense
illusions and motor disturbances as well as senseless activities and loss of
memory. At least one student at the
University of California Riverside campus literally became a vegetable after
having experimented with a local species of Datura growing in the
area. This cost him his research
assistantship and reduced him to a supervised livelihood of sweeping floors. Kavakava, Piper methysticum, is a bushy shrub, 6-8
ft. tall with rounded or cordate leaves.
It is indigenous to Fiji and other Pacific islands but is now grown
throughout the islands of the Pacific.
It produces different results from those previously discussed. The thick, knotty, grayish-green roots are
the source. These are dug up and the
bark is removed. After cleaning they
are cut up into small pieces. These
pieces are chewed until they are fine and fibrous and are then placed in a
bowl with water and allowed to ferment.
Formerly while the roots were being chewed the saliva was ejected into
bowls and this constituted the beverage.
After straining, kavakava is a grayish-brown liquid and has a
refreshing taste. It is allied with
the entire social, political and religious life of the people. It is used as a beverage that acts as a
sedative, a soporific and a hypnotic, bringing about pleasant dreams and
sensations. Excessive use may produce
skin diseases and weaken the eyesight.
The active principle is a resinous substance that is stimulating in
small amounts. |