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LEVUANA IRIDESCENS Levuana iridescens
Bethune-Baker, Lepidoptera, Zygaenidae ----- CLICK on Photo to enlarge & search for Subject Matter
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The restricted geographic range
of L. iridescens was considered a "fact
contrary to the usual position with regard to the endemic fauna of
Fiji" (Simmonds, 1924).
Scientists devising management schemes for L. iridescens concluded
that the pest was not endemic to Fiji and was an exotic invader (Simmonds,
1921a; 1924). This conclusion was arrived at because L. iridescens exhibited
frequent outbreaks, was expanding its geographic range, and lacked
specialized parasitoids associated with eggs, larvae, or
pupae. These facts were recognized as
very peculiar aspects of this pest's ecology when compared to
other zygaenid species in their native range that outbreak
infrequently, don't exhibit range expansion, and have diverse suites of
associated natural enemies (Simmonds, 1924; Simmonds
1930a; Tothill et al., 1930).
However, this did not permit a conclusion that L. iridescens an
invader in Fiji, but it did suggest the moth might have originated elsewhere
and immigrated to the islands (Tothill et al., 1930). To curb the spread and impact
of L. iridescens in Fiji and limit the threat
to other coconut growing areas in the South Pacific control measures were
sought. J.D. Tothill, and his
two associates T.H.C. Taylor and R.W. Paine were given a two year
contract to work on the problem. Tothill viewed biological control
as the only feasible and sustainable option available to permanently suppress
L. iridescens. Tothill et al. (1930)
located and imported a tachinid fly, B. remota,
from Malaya where it controlled another
palm defoiliating zygaenind, Artona catoxantha. Within six months of release of this fly
from quarantine in August-September 1925, L. iridescens populations
had been reduced to almost non-detectable levels on Viti Levu,
although persistent outbreaks continued on two small off shore islands
(Nukulau and Makuluva) in the Rewa River Delta
(Tothill et al., 1930). The last known specimen of L. iridescens was
collected in 1929 and the moth is now assumed to be extinct because of B. remota (Howarth
2001). Kuris (2003) reviewed Tothill et
al.'s (1930) treatise on the classical biological control of L.
iridescens in Fiji with B. remota from
the perspective of an invasion biologist.
Kuris (2003) concluded that it was probable that L.
iridescens was exotic to Fiji and that it was unlikely
that natural enemies, in particular, B. remota,
had caused the extinction of L. iridescens. Kuris's
(2003) analysis supports earlier statements and conclusions reached by Sands
(1997) regarding the exotic origin and extinction of L. iridescens. However, Dr. Mark Hoddle notes that a much
larger part of the L. iridescens story
has been overlooked and that biological control was the last control option
turned to after other management strategies had failed. REFERENCES: [Additional references may be found at: MELVYL Library ] Bias, H. P.,
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Forest Health and Technology Enterprise Team, Morgantown, West
Virginia, USDA-USFS, FHTET-2004-03. |
