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American Drugs in Egyptian Mummies Updated from S. A. Wells <www.colostate.edu> Abstract: The recent findings of cocaine, nicotine, and hashishin
Egyptian mummies by Balabanova et. al. have been criticized on grounds that: contamination of the mummies may
have occurred, improper techniques may have been used, chemical decomposition
may have produced the compounds in question, recent mummies of drug users
were mistakenly evaluated, that no similar cases are known of such compounds
in long-dead bodies, and especially that pre-Columbian transoceanic voyages are
highly speculative. These criticisms
are each discussed in turn.
Balabanova et. al. are shown to have used and confirmed their findings
with accepted methods. The
possibility of the compounds being byproducts of decomposition is shown to be
without precedent and highly unlikely.
The possibility that the researchers made evaluations from of faked
mummies of recent drug users is shown to be highly unlikely in almost all
cases. Several additional cases of
identified American drugs in mummies are discussed. Additionally, it is shown that significant evidence exists for
contact with the Americas in pre-Columbian times. It is determined that the original findings are supported by
substantial evidence despite the initial criticisms. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Discussion In a one-page article appearing in Naturwissenschaften, German scientist
Svetla Balabanova (1992) and two of her colleagues reported findings of
cocaine, hashish and nicotine in Egyptian mummies. The findings were immediately identified as improbable on the
grounds that two of the substances are known to be derived only from American
plants - cocaine from Erythroxylon
coca, and nicotine from Nicotiana
tabacum. The suggestion that such
compounds could have found their way to Egypt before Columbus' discovery of
America seemed patently impossible.
The study was done as part of an ongoing program of investigating the
use of hallucinogenic substances in ancient societies. The authors themselves were quite
surprised by the findings (Discovery, 1997) but stood y their results despite
being the major focus of riticism in the following volume of Naturwissenschaften. Of the nine mummies evaluated, ll showed
signs of ocaine and hashish Tetrahydrocannabinol), whereas all but one
sampled ositive for nicotine. It is
interesting too that the concentrations of the compounds suggest uses other
han that of buse. (For example,
modern drug addicts ften have concentrations of cocaine and nicotine in heir
hair 75 and 20 times higher respectively than hat found in the mummy hair
samples.) It is even possible that the quantities found may be high due
toconcentration in body tissues through time.
Without question, the study has sparked an interest in various
disciplines. As Balabanova et. al.
predicted, "...the results open up an entirely new field of research
which unravels aspects of past human life-style far beyound [sic] basic
biological reconstruction." The Criticisms
The biggest criticism of the findings of Balabanova et. al. was not
necessarily directed at the extraction process per se, although this was
discussed. The biggest criticism was
that cocaine and nicotine could not possibly have been used in Egypt before the
discovery of the New World, and that transatlantic journeys were not known -
or at least they are highly speculative.
It is safe to say that the criticisms of the study would have been
minimal or nonexistent if the findings had been made of Old World drugs. Such findings, in fact, would not have
been at all unusual as the use of stimulants were known in Egypt. Poppy seeds and lotus plants have been
identified for just this use in manuscripts (the Papyrus Ebers) and in
hieroglyphs (as Balabanova et. al. show).
Schafer (1993) argues that, "the detection of pharmacologically
active substances in mummified material never proves their use prior to
death." He argues that such compounds could have been introduced as part
of the mummification process. The
suggestion is that (especially) nicotine could have been introduced around the mummy (and subsequently
absorbed into its tissue) as an insecticide (being used as a preservative)
within relatively modern times. A
similar criticism was raised by Bjorn (1993) who wondered if nicotine might
have been absorbed by the mummies from cigarette smoke in the museums where
the mummies have been preserved.
According to Schafer, the only way to show that the compounds were
taken into the bodies while they were alive would be to find different
concentrations at different distances from the scalp - a procedure not
undertaken by the authors.
Another interesting criticism of Schafer (1993) is that Balabanova et.
al. might have been the victims of faked mummies. Apparently people (living in the not too far distant past)
believed that mummies contained black tar called bitumen and that it could be
ground up and used to cure various illnesses. In fact the very word 'mummy' comes from the Persian 'mummia'
meaning bitumen (Discovery, 1997). A
business seems to have developed wherein recently dead bodies where
deliberately aged to appear as mummies and that some of the perpetrators of
such deeds were drug abusers.
The criticism that seems most popular is that the identified drugs
might have been products of "necrochemical and necrobiochemical
processes" (Schafer, 1993; Bjorn, 1993). One explanation is that Egyptian priests used
tropine-alkaloid-containing plants during the mummification process that
subsequently underwent changes in the mummy to resemble the identified
compounds.
Yet another argument is that there is nothing in the literature
showing that any of the three compounds have been identified in bodies that
have been dead for some time. Reply to the Critics Analytical
Techniques and Contamination
“In the study, samples were taken from nine mummies that were dated
from between 1070 B.C. to 395 A.D.
The samples included hair, skin and muscle were taken from the head
and abdomen. Bone tissue was also
taken from the skull. All tissues
were pulverized and dissolved in NaCl solution, homogenized, and
centrifuged. A portion of the
supernatant was extracted with chloroform and dried and then dissolved in a
phosphate buffer. Samples were then
measured by both radioimmunoassay (Merck; Biermann) and gas chromatography /
mass spectrometry (Hewlett Packard) - hereinafter GCMS. “
“This is the procedure used to produce what McPhillips (1998)
considered indisputable evidence for confirming products of substance abuse
in hair. Within recent years, hair
analysis has been used more commonly in this kind of screening process and
the techniques employed have been optimized.
Mistakes are known to have occurred in some cases evaluating for
metals, but the ability to detect drugs such as cocaine, nicotine, and
hashish seem not been problematic (Wilhelm, 1996). The two possible mistakes in analyzing hair for drugs include false positives, which are caused by
environmental contamination; and false negatives, where actual compounds are
lost because of such things as hair coloring or perming. In recent years, these techniques of hair
analysis have revealed the interesting findings of arsenic in the hair of
Napoleon Bonaparte, and laudanum in the hair of the poet Keats. “
“The procedure includes a thorough washing of the hair to remove
external contaminants followed by a process of physical degradation using a
variety of methods (such as digestion with enzymes or dissolution with acids,
organic solvents, etc.,). Following
these preparatory procedures, the hair is then analyzed. Antibody testing (e.g. radioimmunoassay)
is a well-established procedure although there is small potential of
obtaining false positive results.
These are mainly caused by the cross-reactivity of the antibody with
other compounds, including minor analgesics, cold remedies and antipsychotic
drugs - compounds not likely to be found in Egyptian mummies. Because of the possible false positives,
chromatography (GC-MS) is routinely utilized to confirm the results. “
“The suggestion of nicotine contamination from cigarette smoke is
eliminated by the use of solvents and/or acids in the cleaning process -
methods used by Balabanova et. al. and all other researchers that have
documented drugs in mummies. “
“The validity of Balabanova's findings seems to be vindicated at least
so far as the analytical methods used in the study. The authors' methods as well as those in the additional
findings reported here (see below) have used the combination of immunological
and chromatographic methods to both analyze and confirmsamples. “ Faked
Mummies
“The argument that the mummies might have been modern fakes was
investigated by David (Discovery, 1997).
David is the Keeper of Egyptology at the Manchester Museum, and
undertook her own analysis of mummies, independent of Balabanova's
group. In addition, she traveled to
Munich to evaluate for herself the mummies studied by Balabanova's
group. Unfortunately the mummies
weren't available for filming and they were being kept isolated from further
research on grounds of religious respect.
David had to resort to the museum's records. She found that, except for the city's famous mummy of Henot
Tawi (Lady of the Two Lands) the mummies were of unknown origin and some were
represented only by detached heads. “
“David's inability to examine the mummies herself may have kept the
possibility of faked ones open; however, her evaluation of the museum's records
seemed to indicate otherwise. The
mummies were preserved with packages of their viscera inside. Some even contained images of the
gods. In addition the state of
mummification itself was very good.
The isolated heads may have been fakes (evidence one way or the other
is lacking) but the intact bodies examined in Balabanova's research were
clearly genuine. “ Chemical
Changes
“The argument that the identified drugs might be byproducts of
decomposition is highly unlikely.
The argument appears to resemble a 'Just So' story of biochemical
evolution without the benefit of natural selection. Schafer (1993) admits that natural decomposition or
mummification has never led to the synthesis of cocaine or related alkaloids
but leaves the possibility open anyway.
He argues that the compounds in question might theoretically have been
produced by tropine-alkaloid-containing plants (such as were present in
species that were utilized in the mummification process). “
“The benefit of the doubt in this case clearly goes to Balabanova et.
al. Until it is shown how cocaine could be produced in this way, the argument
is hypothetical at best. “ Isolated
Example
“The detection of drugs in human hair is a fairly recent endeavor
(McPhillips, 1998; Sachs, 1998). A
few compounds were identified during the 1980's but it wasn't until the 1990s
that drug screening via hair analysis became accepted and used as a possible
alternative to urine sampling. The
criticism that no known cases of cocaine, nicotine, or hashish have been
reported in human hair must, therefor be interpreted with clarification. None of these compounds had been observed
in human hair because the process had not been fully developed, nor had the
application even been considered until quite recently. Even then the claim is not true. “
“Cartwell et. al. (1991) using a radioimmunoassay method detected
cocaine metabolites in pre-Columbian mummy hair from South America. In this study two out of eight mummies
analyzed showed cocaine metabolites.
All samples tested were confirmed by a separate laboratory
(Psychomedics Corporation, Santa Monica, California) using GC-MS. The two mummies testing positive were
from the Camarones Valley in northern Chile. The artifacts as well as the mummies at this site were typical
of Inca culture. “
“Since the initial work of Balabanova et. al., other studies have
revealed the same drugs (cocaine, nicotine, and hashish) in Egyptian mummies,
confirming the original results. Nerlich et. al. (1995), in a study evaluating the tissue
pathology of an Egyptian mummy dating from approximately 950 B.C., found the
compounds in several of the mummy's organs.
They found the highest amounts of nicotine and cocaine in the mummy's
stomach, and the hashish traces primarily in the lungs. These findings were again identified
using both radioimmunoassay and GSMS techniques. Very similar results were again found in yet another study by
Parsche and Nerlich (1995). Again,
the findings were obtained using the immunological and chromatographic
techniques. “
“David's work (Discovery, 1997) though not finding cocaine, did
confirm the presence of nicotine.
This finding has seemed a little less threatening to conservative scholarship
in that it seems possible (albeit unlikely) that a nicotine-producing plant
may have existed in Africa within historic times - only becoming extinct
recently. “
“Such a possibility might allow for a comfortable resolution to
conservative scholarship but doesn't explain the evidence of cocaine. Additionally, the possibility of a native
plant going extinct is unlikely.
Much more reasonable would be that an introduced species under
cultivation could go extinct, yet this only begs the question of the original
provenance of the species. “
“In any event, considering the several confirmations of Balabanova's
work (as well as that of Caldwell et. al. prior to her study) it appears that
the argument against their findings based on too little evidence is quickly
vanishing (if not already obviated). “ Pre-Columbian
Voyages to America
“The major reason for the initial criticisms to Balabanova's work is
the disbelief in pre-Columbian transoceanic contacts. Egyptologist John Baines (Discovery,
1997) went so far as to state, "The idea that the Egyptians should have traveled to America is overall
absurd...and I also don't know anyone who spends time doing research in these
areas, because they're not perceived to be areas that have any real meaning
for the subjects. " Another
interpretation on why researchers haven't considered the subject closer is
given by Kehoe (1998), "Aftermid-century, any archaeologist worried
about money or career avoided looking at pre-Columbian contacts across
saltwater [p. 193].." It appears that acknowledging that pre-Columbian
contacts occurred was not academically acceptable. Kehoe (1998) also gives examples of several researchers whose
work has been academically marginalized because it supported these views
(e.g. Stephen Jett, Carl Johannessen, Gordon Ekholm, Paul Tolstoy, and George
Carter). “
“Surprising at it may seem, evidence for early ocean voyages to
America from the Old World is not lacking - nor is it negligibly verifiable. Within the last two years, two
periodicals, focusing on these contacts have been established. The first, entitled Pre-Columbiana, is
edited by Stephen C. Jett, Professor of Clothings and Textiles at the
University of California, Davis; the second is entitled Migration and
Diffusion and is edited by Professor Christine Pellek in Vienna, Italy. There is certainly quite a bit of
spurious reports of early contacts from the Old World, however, a general disregard
for all of the evidence is, anymore, itself evidence of academic negligence,
as these two periodicals indicate. “
“A bibliography of these early contacts is given by John Sorensen
(1998) in the first issue of Pre-Columbiana. It is a good example of the kinds of evidence being uncovered
by legitimate researchers and institutions.
The bibliography is itself a condensation of a two-volume work of
these publications and includes titles such as: The world's oldest ship?
(showing evidence for a pre-Columbian ship in America) published in
Archaeology; Peruvian fabrics (showing very strong similarities between Peru
and Asia) published in Anthropological papers of the American Museum of
Natural History; Robbing native American cultures: Van Sertima's Afro
centricity and the Olmecs (showing evidence for connections between Africa
and the Olmecs of Middle America) published in Current Anthropology; Possible
Indonesian or Southeast Asian Influences in New World textile industries
(showing at least three textile-related inventions that appear in both
Indonesia and the New World) published in Indonesian Textiles; and, Genes may
link Ancient Eurasians, Native Americans, published in Science.”
“And the list goes on and on - some evidence being better than others
- but as a whole it seems pretty much irrefutable. Claims to the contrary
seem to be made by individuals with a vested interest in the isolationist
position. The evidence, pro and con, when evaluated objectively, would seem
without question, to favor the diffusionist position (which claims that
pre-Columbian contacts took place). “ Considerations
“The initial reaction to the findings of Balabanova et. al. were
highly critical. These criticisms
were not based on a known failing in the authors' research methodology,
rather they were attempts to cast doubt on an implication of the research -
that cocaine and nicotine were brought to Egypt from the New World before
Columbus. This conclusion is not
acceptable to conservative investigators of the past. In fact it suggests a deep-rooted
aversion to what Balabanova suggested might mean an unraveling of aspects of
history contrary to basic reconstructions.
This aversion, according to Kehoe (1998) stems from the conviction
that Indians were primitive savages destined to be overcome by the civilized
world - that the acme of evolutionary success resided in the conquering race
itself. ‘Childlike savages could
never have voyaged across oceans.’ “
“Balabanova's findings bring yet other evidence forward that humanity
is not so easily pinioned into the pre-conceived notions of primitive and
advanced - even as this might be related to the presumed technology of
earlier times. The quest for
discovery - to find new worlds - is not just a modern selective advantage of
our species. Perhaps it is the
defining characteristic. “ Literature Cited: Balababova, S., F. Parsche, and W. Pirsig. 1992. First
identification of drugs in Egyptian mummies.
Naturwissenschaften
79:358. Bisset, N.G. and M.H.
Zenk. 1993. Responding to 'First identification of drugs in Egyptian mummies'. Naturwissenschaften 80:244-245. Bjorn, L.O. 1993. Responding
to 'First identification of drugs in Egyptian mummies'. Naturwissenschaften80:244. Cartwell, L.W. et. al.
1991. Cocaine metabolites in pre-Columbian mummy hair. Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical
Association 84:11-12. Discovery Information. 1997.
Curse of the Cocaine Mummies. Thirty-six page transcript of program
viewed on US National TV in January 1997 and July 1999. Kehoe, A.B. 1998. The Land of
Prehistory, A Critical History of American Archaeology. Routledge, New York and London. 266 pp. McIntosh, N.D.P. 1993.
Responding to 'First identification of drugs in Egyptian
mummies'. Naturwissenschaften
80:245-246. McPhillips, M. et. al.
1998. Hair analysis, new laboratory ability to test for substance use. British Journal of Psychiatry 173:
287-290. Nerlich, A.G. et. al.
1995. Extensive pulmonary haemorrhage in an Egyptian mummy. Virchows Archiv 127:423-429. Parsche, F. 1993. Reply
to "Responding to 'First identification of drugs in Egyptian
mummies'". Naturwissenschaften
80:245-246. Parsche, F. and A.
Nerlich. 1995. Presence of drugs in different tissues of an Egyptian mummy.
Fresenius'. Journal of Analytical
Chemistry 352:380-384. Sachs, H. and P. Kintz. 1998.
Testing for drugs in hair, critical review of chromatographic
procedures since 1992. Journal of
Chromatography (B) 713:147-161. Schafer, T. 1993. Responding to
'First identification of drugs in Egyptian mummies'. Naturwissenschaften 80:243-244. Sorenson, J.L.
1998. Bibliographia Pre-Columbiana.
Pre-Columbiana 1(1&2):143-154. Wells, S. A. American
Drugs in Egyptian Mummies: A Review of the Evidence. www.colostate.edu, Wilhelm, M. 1996. Hair analysis
in environmental medicine. Zentralblatt fur Hygeine
und Umweltmedizin 198: 485-501. |