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Insecta: Muscidae AUSTRALIAN BUSHFLY (Contact) Please CLICK on
underlined links for details: An investigation into the biological-integrated control of pestiferous
flies in Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands revealed 6 principal species in
the families Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae and Muscidae, among which some were
successfully reduced to non-annoyance population levels in 18 months. Musca vetustissima Walker, of the Musca sorbens complex, was
satisfactorily reduced on some islands through habitat reduction, the
introduction of natural enemies and baiting after 21 months. The history,
biology and control of M. vetustissima
is reviewed and future efforts outlined for the importation of natural enemies.
Possibilities for resistance to insecticides are indicated and precautions
recommended for the effective long term use of poisoned baits. The potential
invasion of M. sorbens in North
America is discussed. INTRODUCTION Pestiferous flies in the Marshall Islands
provide a classic example of the adaptation of invading noxious insects to a
salubrious tropical climatic area. With nearly perfect temperature-humidity
conditions for their development, an abundance of carbohydrate and
protein-rich wastes in the form of garbage and excreta provided by man and
his animals, and a general absence of effective natural enemies, several
species were able to reach maximum numbers. There are principally 4 types of pestiferous
flies in Kwajalein atoll of the Marshall Islands, with the Australian bush
fly, Musca vetustissima Walker
of the Musca sorbens complex,
being by far the most pestiferous species (FIG. I). The common house fly, Musca demestica L., of lesser importance,
frequents houses and is attracted to food in recreation areas. The remaining
2 types are the Calliphoridae [Chrysomya
megacephala (Fab.), and Phaenicia cuprina (Wiedemann)) , and the
Sarcophagidae [ Parasarcophaga misera
(Walker), and Phytosarcophaga gressitti
Hall and Bohart). These latter species are abundant around garbage disposal
sites and wherever rotting meat and I decaying fish are available. The
Calliphoridae are copper to bluish-green, sometimes blue, on the thorax
making them easily distinguishable from the large striped gray Sarcophagidae.
Both of these flies differ from the common house fly and the bush fly in
being more sluggish and noisy and by their general avoidance of humans.
Because residents do not a distinguish different kinds of flies, these latter
2 types are often blamed as nuisances when in fact they may be considered to
fulfill a useful role in the biodegradation of garbage and rotting a meat. PROCEDURE Studies were begun in April 1971 at the request
of the United States Army and the United States Trust Territory of the
Pacific, to investigate fly abatement possibilities in Kwajalein Atoll,
Marshall Islands. The atoll, the largest in the world, is about 120 Km long
by an average 23 Km wide and contains 93 islets grouped roughly between
166-167° E. longitude and 8-9° N. latitude in an irregular ring around a
central lagoon (Bryan 1972 and FIG. 2). Kwajalein, the
largest island, lies at the extreme south of the atoll (FIG. 2 , 3 & 5). An initial assessment of the problem using
standard sampling methods to locate fly breeding sources and identify
associated natural enemy fauna, resulted in the expedient implementation of
breeding source reduction to reduce the house fly, Musca domestica L., and
both the Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae to inconspicuous levels, which
largely involved slight modifications of refuse disposal sites to disfavor
fly breeding. By November 1972, these simple measures resulted in an
estimated 1/3rd reduction of total flies concentrating around beaches and
other recreational areas (see Table 1 for proportion of fly species trapped). Because the house
fly especially enters dwellings, its
reduction was desirable for the general health of the community, and fly
annoyances indoors diminished.
Thorough surveys of breeding sites and natural enemy complexes
revealed that Musca vetustissima reduction
would not be quickly forthcoming, however. A schedule of importation for
natural enemies was begun in 1971 and other integrated control approaches
were investigated: eg. baiting and breeding habitat manipulation. The following account of this, the
principal problem fly species in the atoll, reviews bush fly history and
biology, at the same time pointing out the magnitude of the biological, technological
and political difficulties involved in its permanent reduction. RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION Bush Fly. Musca vetustissima Walker of the Musca sorbens 1830 complex Origin and
Habits. -- This group of flies is known as the bazaar fly in North Africa, a
housefly in India, and the bush fly in Australia (Yu 1971). Musca sorbens was first described from
Sierra Leone in West Africa in 1830 (Wiedemann 1830) where it is a notorious
nuisance to man and animals. The flies are attracted to wounds, sores, and
skin lesions, searching for any possible food sources such as blood and other
exudations. Although not a biting species, its habits of being able to
transmit eye diseases, entheric infections, pathogenic bacteria and helminth
eggs make it one of our most important and dangerous public health insects
(Bell 1969; Buston and Hopkins 1927; Gaud and Faure 1951; Gaud et al. 1954;
Greenberg 1971; Hafez and Attia 1958; Lamborn 1937; McGuire and Durant 1957;
Patton 1920, '22, '23, '26, '32, '33; Thomson and Lamborn 1934). The bush fly has spread through a major portion
of the Old World, Africa and parts of Asia (Awati 1920; Gaud and Faure 1951;
Hafez and Attia 1958; Hughes 1968; Jack 1931; Lewis 1954; Meng and Winfield
1944; Norris 1966; Patton 1920, '23, '26; Roy and Siddoils 1940; Van Emden
1965). In Oceania its distribution is in AustraIia (Norris 1966; Paterson and
Norris 1970); New Guinea (Paterson and Norris 1970); Samoa (Huxton and
Hopkins 1927); Guam (Harris and Down 1946, Hohart and Gressitt 1951); and the
Marshall Islands (Hohart and Gressitt 1951 )0 In Hawaii it was first reported
by Joyce in 1950. Since then Hardy (1952) listed it in the Catalog of
Hawaiian Diptera, and Wilton (1963) reported its predilection for dog
excrement. Annoyance by the bush fly
increased in the 1960's when it was incriminated as a potential vector of
Beta-haemolytic streptococci in an eipdemic of acute glomerulonephritis (Bell
1969). Taxonomy. -- Paterson and Norris
(1970) identified 3 biological forms in the M.
sorbens complex. These are distinguished by morphometric
differences and reproductive isolation in the laboratory, and consist of the
African male broad-frons and narrow-frons forms, and the Australian
narrow-frons form. Examination of morphometric measurements of 220
randomly selected adult males collected on Kwajalein Island during the period
April 1971 -November 1972 showed an average frons ratio (6) of 0.0590 (range 0.0341 -0.1052; SD = 0.0182), which was
close to that of both the African and Australian narrow-frons forms. However,
the frequency distribution showed 2 distinctive peaks representing the
narrow- and broad-frons in the ratio of about 4: I (FIG 4). Also, a count
of the parafrontal hairs of 20 random females (Paterson and Norris 1970) gave
similar results. Thus, 2 forms may be sympatric in Kwajalein, which has been
shown possible from other areas (Paterson and Norris 1970). Breeding
Habits. -- The principal breeding sites of the bush fly vary according to
different geographical localities.
However, human excrement is regarded by many authorities as a
preferred site when this is available (Bohar,t and Gressitt 1954; Gaud et al.
1954; Hafez and Attia 1958; Harris and Down 1946; Norris 1966; Patton 1933;
Peffly 1953a, b; Roy and Siddons 1940; Sabrosky 1952). The bush fly also breeds in fresh
droppings of a number of larger animals, such as cattle (Bohart and Gressitt
1951; Hafez and Attia 1958; Hughes and Walker 1970; Jack 1931; Meng and
Winfield 1944; Pat ton 1922, '36; Peffly 1953b); horses (Bohart and Gressitt
1951; Lewis 1954; Pat ton 1922, '36); dogs (Meng and Winfield 1944; Norris
1966; Pat ton 1922; Wilton 1963); and pigs (Bohart and Gressitt 1951; Meng
and Winfield 1938; Smirov 1940; Hafez and Attia 1958). Sheep feces (Norris
1966), and goat and cat feces (Yu 1971) are also suitable. Poultry excrement will not support this
fly's development (Yu 1971). Other
breeding sources of much lesser importance but which are capable of producing
small numbers of bush fly are carcasses of animals, decaying vegetable,
matter and garbage (Bevan 1926, Norris 1966, Pat ton 1922, Yu 1971). Recent studies by Yu (1971) in Hawaii
show that dog feces are the most important breeding medium on Oahu. He concluded that dung of cows, horses,
pigs and goats are of minor importance in rural areas where dog feces are not
readily available. Development. -- The average developmental period in Hawaii
from eggs to adults is 10 days with an average of 76 flies emerging per field
sample of dog feces. On Kwajalein developmental time probably averages 8 days
with over 100 flies emerging from one sample of dog feces. High precipitation
may prevent the fly from full activity and breeding (Yu 1971). In the Kwajalein atoll there is little reason to
doubt that a substantial portion of the main density of Musca vetustissima emanates from dog and
human feces. However, extensive
inspection of pig droppings in the bush of 10 widely separated islets
revealed high numbers of larvae (over 100 per dropping), making this dung, as
in Guam (Bohart and Gressitt 1951 ), a primary breeding source in the atoll.
Pigs that are corralled on soil or concrete slabs concentrate and trample
their droppings making them less suitable breeding sites. In such situations
flies were only able to complete their development along the periphery of
corrals. Coconut husks placed under
pigs in corrals results in the production of greater numbers of flies by
reducing the effectiveness of trampling. These conclusions were reached after
comparing quantitative samples taken over a period of 2 years from the
respective breeding habitats. Garbage was not found to breed M. vetustissima, although admittedly a
very low percentage of the adult population could originate there judging
from reports elsewhere. Nevertheless, this medium is certainly not
responsible for producing more than 2% of the adult densities observed in the
atoll. Control
Efforts and Evaluation Worldwide. -- Successful partial
control of bush fly has been achieved only in Hawaii through a combination of
the elimination of breeding sites, principally dog droppings, and the
activities of parasitic and predatory insects introduced earlier for
biological control of other fly species, e.g., Musca domestica (Legner 1978 ). The density of-bush fly
varies in different climatic zones in Hawaii, but the importance of this fly
is minimal compared to Kwajalein. At times hymenopterous parasites have been
found to parasitize over 95% of flies sampled in the Waikiki area (H. Yu,
unpublished data). Other parts of Oceania were either not suitable
for the maximum effectiveness of known parasitic species ( e.g. Australia) or
the principal breeding habitats were not attractive to the natural enemies.
Therefore, in Australia a concerted effort is being made to secure scavenger
and predatory insects from Africa that would be effective in the principal
unmanageable fly producing source, cattle and sheep dung (Bomemissza 1970; G.
F. Bomemissza, personal communication). For example, insectary studies on Onthophagus gazella F. (Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae) showed 80-100% reduction of M.
vetustissima emergence from
cattle dung (Bomemissza 1970). Surviving fly larvae gave rise to small,
stunted adults of reduced reproductive capability. Kwajalein
Atoll. -- Continuing integrated fly control begun in 1971 has now reached a
level of partial success. Initial surveys for natural enemies of M. vetustissima in April-May 1971
revealed the presence of 4 scavenger and predatory insects, the histerid Carcinops troglodytes Erichson, the
nitidulid Carpophilus pilosellus
Motschulsky, the tenebrionid Alphitobius
diaperinus (penzer), and the dermapteran Labidura riparia (pallas). Following our
recommendations in May 1971, dogs were significantly reduced and all privies
were reconstructed or improved on one island, Ebeye Dogs were reduced or tethered on Kwajalein Island and refuse
fish, etc., disposed of thoroughly on l1leginni (an island that experienced
outbreaks of Sarcophagidae in 1970 (FIG. 2), and other islands with American residents. Continuing importations of natural
enemies were made throughout the atoll with establishment of some species
verified in November 1972 (Table
2). The average density of M. vetustissima
on Ebeye was, subsequently, considerably reduced by November 1972 from an
estimated 8.5 flies attracted to the face per minute!, to less than 0.5 flies
per minute, a reduction readily recognized by the inhabitants (7). The single most
important cause appeared to be the partial elimination of breeding sources,
with natural enemies playing a secondary role The M.
vetustissima density at
Roi-Namur (estimated 2.5 flies attracted per minute), in the norther apex of
the atoll, and Ennylabegan (6.0 flies per minute), in the southwest, did not
substantially improve following the natural enemy introductions and
recommendations for reducing breeding habitats. However, this is thought to be due to an increase in the number
of human inhabitants, dogs and pigs on Ennylabegan and on Ennubira to the
southeast of Roi-Namur (Fig. 2). Flies apparently invade islands adjacent to
their breeding origin at a very slow rate as evidenced by a lack of recovery
on Kwajalein of dyed flies that were released on Ebeye and Ennylabegan in
November, 1973. However, Australian studies support the fact that M. vetustissima possesses rapid,
long-distance migrating behavior, which is aided by windstorms (Hughes 1970,
Norris 1966). Even though mark and recapture experiments were negative, there
is probably continuous slow invasion of M.
vetustissima over a proposed route from Ennubira to Roi-Namur; and
from Ennylabegan to Enubuj and Kwajalein (FIG. 2 & FIG. 3). Flies are absent on islands without native or American
inhabitants even though adjacent islands may have high densities, which lends
some support to the minimal invasion hypothesis. Fly persistence around human
habitation is probably not to seek breeding sites but rather to attain
foodstuffs, especially carbohydrates, meat scraps and sauces which are
perennially available at recreation sites especially. Therefore, control efforts stress
corralling pigs, reconstructing privies and reducing dog populations. All
residents on all islands are urged to refrain from indiscriminate disposal of
wastes from soft drink and beer cans. Importations of natural enemies are
being stressed for those areas where pigs and dogs roam wild. New Approaches to Bush Fly Reduction. -- New approaches to the
solution of the bush fly problem in Kwajalein atoll involve the use of
effective poisoned baits for adult flies, technological changes in garbage
disposal and the importation of natural enemies from the presumed original
endemic area of M. sorbens in
central and eastern Africa. Poison Baits Sugar bait mixtures that have been used for M domestica in years previous to 1972
were wholly ineffective for killing adult M.
vetustissima due to their almost complete lack of
attractiveness. Baits tested during
November 1972 through April 1973 included a variety of decomposing
foodstuffs, of which rotting eggs and rotting fish sauces were very highly
attractive. In one experiment using a 6-day old mixture of one part fresh
whole eggs to one part water (Legner 1970b, 1971), it is estimated that about 50,000 bush flies
were attracted to the mixture and killed by a 0.5 ppm Dichlorvos, (8) additive. The poisoned mixture was poured in quantities of 100 mI each on
damp sand at 20 sites in the shade and spaced every 10m along a public beach
on Kwajalein (FIG 6 & FIG 7). Baits placed above the height of 1m or against walls in
open pavilions were only weakly attractive. After 48 hours, flies were
reduced to inconspicuous levels all over Kwajalein Island (Table 1 gives the approximate % of each species trapped). This condition endured for 3 consecutive
days after which immigrating flies managed to build up to annoying levels
starting on the 4th day when the baits ceased to be attractive. The former
density of flies had not yet been reached, one week after the baiting
experiment; and this population was subsequently reduced in the same manner
by applying additional fresh poisoned baits. Flies breeding in dog feces were
the principal source of the population recovery on Kwajalein, as shown by
marking and recovery experiments in November 1973.. Baiting was continued through November 1973 and
extended to other islands in the atoll with a result of sustained reduction
of bush fly to below general annoyance levels (less than 0.01 attracted per
minute on Kwajalein, Roi-Namur, Illeginni and Meck Islands). A new attractant that augmented the
rotting egg mixture consisted of beach sand soaked for one week in the decomposing
body fluids of buried sharks. This new attractant was far superior to rotting
eggs both in rate and time of attraction, the latter sometimes exceeding 5
days. The baiting method of control can be used
effectively if applied initially twice a week. A schedule of biweekly
applications or longer may follow as determined by personnel in charge of the
control program. Resistance Resistance in the tropical environment could be
expected to develop very quickly if adult flies that are exposed to the baits
are able to reach breeding sites. This resistance might ultimately be
expected to spread through the whole M.
vetustissima population in
Kwajalein atoll, similar to that observed for other species (Georghiou 1966).
Obviously, if breeding sites and poisoned baits are located together within
the normal flight range of flies, resistance rate is increased. However,
there is probably a lower resistance possibility to electric shock devices,
and not much chance for resistance against natural bait such as rotting eggs
or fish. Nevertheless, with full
awareness of the plasticity of M
vetustissima and the general resilience of nature, it cannot be
ignored that the possibility for resistance to any chemical control
implemented by humans does exist. Technological
and Cultural Improvements To
further ensure against breeding of M.
vetustissima around refuse disposal sites and that resistance does
not develop in populations of the common house fly and blowfly which are able
to successfully breed in these sites, the development of suitable concrete
barriers to larval flies around such sites was proposed. Fly larvae of M. domestica and Phaenicia cuprina especially, were
repeatedly observed entering the soil from cans and dumpsters containing
refuse. Such refuse sites placed on adequately rimmed concrete platforms
would probably prevent larvae from finding suitable pupation sites in
surrounding soil. The use of petroleum oils in a long perimeter around refuse
deposition sites, saturating the soil within the depicted circle to a depth
of at least 5 cm, might offer partial control. However, some fly larvae are
capable of penetrating this barrier so that its effectiveness is not as great
as concrete. Natural Enemies Biological control organisms are usually
effective only in one or a few breeding habitats, and their activities are
limited under certain types of climatic stress. For example, when house flies
breed in garbage they are less prone to attack by certain natural enemies
than when breeding occurs in accumulated animal excrement (Legner and
Poorbaugh 1972). The aim of biological
control is to locate and establish natural enemies that will perform
effectively in: all problem breeding habitats. This goal is rarely achieved,
so that effective control takes on an integrated aspect where cultural and
chemical means are implemented. There are no known natural enemies that will
specifically attack the bush fly nor is there any information on what kinds
of parasites and predators range in the droppings of humans, dogs and pigs in
eastern Africa, where bush fly may have originated. The best that can be done
in biological control at this time is to import natural enemies of other fly
species for their possible adaptation to M.
vetustissima. (Legner 1970a; Legner and Greathead 1969 ; Legner and Olton 1968, 1970, 1971 ; Legner et al. 1967). This is the approach that has been made in
Hawaii and is partially successful.
As new species of natural enemies become available, they will be
introduced for biological control. There is some expectation that a concerted
effort will be made to seek out specific natural enemies in eastern Africa as
support for the work becomes available. A list of species that should be
considered for introduction in Kwajalein atoll is shown in Table 3; however, this list is expected to grow
as information about new natural enemies from Africa develops. The biological control phase of fly reduction
must be viewed as a long-range approach with ever increasing fly reduction as
the new beneficial species become established. An investment of research time
in the initial evaluation of a natural enemy species during the importation
phase would not be practical from the standpoint that such time would, (I)
detract from the amount of effort placed on introductions; (2) most species
will probably not become established judging from a history of biological
control efforts during the past 50 years; and (3) fly densities are expected
to drop gradually with the relatively small numbers of natural enemies being
released at any given time. Once an
obvious drop in the adult M. vetustissima
density has occurred, a thorough evaluation of the natural enemy species
responsible may be carried out. POTENTIAL
INVASION OF MUSCA VETUSTISSIMA IN NORTH AME RICA There has
been some speculation about the possibility of Musca vetustissima invading portions of North America,
where climatic similarities with Africa and Australia exist. Undoubtedly the
more tropical portions of the continent could sustain this species, with the
Florida peninsula and Mexico appearing the most vulnerable. There is greater
uncertainty about its establishment in the Southwestern United States where
winter cold may be an effective barrier. In Australia M . vetustissima over-winters with
difficulty in the colder southern quarter of the continent (Norris 1966) and
probably reinvades that region annually from the more tropical north (Hughes
1966). Similarly, in the Middle East Israel seems to be out of the general
range of M. vetustissima (Legner
and Olton 1968), although it is a prominent species further south along the Nile
River (Hafez and Attia 1958). There being no sustained breeding sites
available in the intervening desert, invasion during warm seasons is
precluded. Much the same conditions exist in the American Southwest where
annual invasions from Mexico, a potential breeding source, may be minimal
across the arid Sonoran Desert. The threat of invasion in the southeastern
United States from potential breeding sites in Florida is greater, however. CONCLUSIONS In modern pest control the importance of being
conscious of what effects a control action may have on the total environment
as well as its permanency are recognized. Resistance to pesticides,
especially in the tropics, is a greater threat in our procedure than pesticide
pollution because we employ compounds that degrade and are nonpoisonous to
us. In fly control on Kwajalein, resistance to Dichlorvos and related
compounds would leave no alternative stop-gap measure to use in case of an
epidemic of human disease in which flies were vectors. Resistance could also produce hardier
strains and theoretically even more aggressive flies (G. P. Georghiou,
personal communication; Legner 1970a). Therefore, it is essential that the baiting
program to combat flies is minimized and that stress be placed on the
implementation of technological, cultural and biological controls that could
lead to a permanent reduction of fly breeding in the atoll. As of January 2002, the baiting procedure in
Kwajalein has not continued with the sophistication initially determined
necessary. The result is that flies
are not adequately reduced where breeding habitat such as dog feces remain. Personnel changes that resulted in
critical information not being passed on are primarily responsible. Of paramount importance is the proper
brewing of the baits and the latter’s placement in wind-calm areas of the
islands. Also, the baiting program
should logically be extended, at least experimentally, to Musca vetustissima Walker in Australia,
where towns simulate islands in the vast bush land. Temporary relief from bush fly annoyance might be expected to
occur during summer when these flies descend into the higher latitudes. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The assistance and cooperation of personnel in
the following organizations who made this scientific study possible is
gratefully acknowledged: Global
Associates, Department of the Army, University of California, United States
Trust Territory of the Pacific, and the people of the Marshall Islands. = = = = = = = = = = = =
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