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BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL DATABASE

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Background & Overview Ecological Considerations Behavior, Ontogeny & Reproduction in Natural Enemies

Techniques Employed in Implementation Special Research Groups & Integrated Control

Populations Evaluation of Natural Enemies Detailed Cases of BioControl References

BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW Section 1 <bc-1.htm> Introduction & Scope of Biological Pest Control Economics. Important Terms References Section 2 <bc-2.htm> History of Biological Control Insect Predation Insect Parasitoidism Biological Control in the 18th Century Biological Control in the Early 19th Century Biological Control in the Late 19th Century Historical Summary References Section 3 <bc-3.htm> Biological Characteristics of Arthropophagous Arthropods. Hyperparasitism, Autoparasitism, Multiple Parasitism, etc. The Imago or Adult Parasitoid. Mating. Ovigenesis. Host-feeding Ovisorption References Section 4 <bc-4.htm> Organizations Active in Biological Control International Institute of Biological Control L'Organisation Internationale de Lutte Biologique. United States Department of Agriculture Individual Countries Suppliers of Biological Control Organisms References Section 5 <bc-5.htm> Economic Gains from Biological Control Cost Effectiveness Biological Control From Naturally Occurring Organisms Estimation of the Benefits and Costs of Classical Biological Control Analysis of Successes in Biological Control Island Theory Multiple Versus "The Best" Species Clausen's 3-Host Generation/ 3-Year Rule Single Larval Parasitoid Importations. Single Pupal Parasitoid Generalizations. Pest Groups Natural Enemy Groups References Section 6 bc-6.htm> Trends & Future Possibilities Complexities Stimulation to Theories in Population Dynamics & Ecology Future of Integrated Control Future of Insect Pathology Future of Biological Weed Control Future of Biological Control of Medically Important Pests. References ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS Section 7 <bc-7.htm> The Role of Parasitoids and Predators in Natural Control Examples of Stability Measuring the Force of Natural Control Nature of Parasitism Occurrence of Parasitoidism in Insects Taxonomic Groups Important to Biological Control General Ecology of Parasitoids Reproductive Strategies. Percent Parasitization Population Regulation Conclusions Exercises References Section 8 <bc-8.htm> Climate as a Factor in the Natural Control of Organisms Introduction and Discussion Examples (cherry fruit fly, face fly, red scale, walnut aphid, spotted alfalfa aphid, Japanese beetle, alfalfa weevil, black scale, Klamath weed, Mexican bean beetle, American grizzly bear, aquatic weeds, house fly, eye gnats) Conclusions... Exercises... References Section 9 <bc-9.htm> Genetic Considerations in Biological Control (Acquisition of Natural Enemies, Breeding, Mass Releases) The Natural Population at its Origin Natural Enemy Introductions Improving Fitness of Natural Enemies Improving Tolerance to Pesticides Genetic Engineering Prolonged Culture Exercises References Section 10 <bc-10.htm> Extranuclear Events Influencing Behavior and Fecundity in Parasitoids & Other Animals Direct Effects of the Cytoplasmic Genome Chemical Substances Affecting Behavior Muscidifurax Parasitoid Complex Exercises References Section 11 <bc-11.htm> Biological Control Precepts Homopterous Insects as Ideal Candidates Examples Demonstrating Precepts Cottony-cushion scale Florida red scale California red scale Olive scale Rhodesgrass scale Walnut aphid Orb-weaving spiders The Importance of Single Species in Determining the Average Abundance of Plants and Animals Table 11.1 (Examples showing host densities dependent on one or two species) Conclusions Exercises References Section 12 <bc-12.htm> Competitive Displacement, Exclusion and Coexistence. Mechanisms of Competitive Displacement Examples The Coexistence Principle Competitive Displacement of Non-homologues Competitive Displacement and Biological Control Exercises References Section 13 <bc-13.htm> Habitat, Host-finding and Host Acceptance Habitat Effects on Natural Enemies Characteristics of the Habitat that Attract or Repel Natural Enemies Host Food Affects Suitability for Parasitization Other Influences of Habitat Habitat Diversity vs. Similarity Affects Population Stability Host Finding Host Acceptance Host Suitability Host Regulation Manner and Place of Oviposition Exercises References Section 14 <bc-14.htm> Problems and Calculations BEHAVIOR, ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION IN NATURAL ENEMIES Section 15 <bc-15.htm> Parthenogenesis Cytology Arrhenotoky vs. Thelytoky Exercises References Section 16 <bc-16.htm> Arrhenotokous / Thelytokous Reproduction Sex Determination Cytology Genetics Early Hypotheses Modern Hypotheses Some Generalities in Arrhenotokous Reproduction Biparental Males Androgenesis Polyploidy The R locus Incompatibility Factors Sex Intergrades Functional Aspects of Arrhenotokous Reproduction Extranuclear Inheritance and Polygenes in Arrhenotoky Recombinant Hymenopteran Males Estimations of the Number of Active Polygenic Loci Coefficient of Heritability Dominance Some Generalities in Thelytokous Reproduction Exercises References Section 17 <bc-17.htm> Embryology / Ontogeny / Anatomy Early Stages of Ontogeny Organization of the Ripe Egg Development of the Egg Cleavage. Gastrulation Segmentation Prenatal Development in Hymenoptera Specifically Egg Size & Shape Common Egg Shapes in Parasitoids Polyembryony in Hymenoptera Post Natal Development Larval Feeding Larval Respiration Larval Anatomy Hypermetamorphosis Prepupa Pupa Rate of Development Exit from the Host Male Reproductive System Exercises References Section 18 <bc-18.htm> Oogenesis-Ovisorption (oosorption, egg resorption) General Characteristics Physiology of Ovigenesis-ovisorption Vitellogenesis (yolk formation) Classification of Hymenoptera by the Female's Reproductive System Variability in Ovisorption Process among Hymenoptera Ovisorption Rate Effect of Ovisorption on Longevity Work on Nasonia vitripennis Exercises. References Section 19 <bc-19.htm> Facultative Sex Regulation Spermatheca and Spermathecal Gland Types of Spermathecae in Hymenoptera Sex Regulation Considerations Exercises References Section 20 <bc-20.htm> Behavioral, Ecological and Physiological Factors affecting the Sex Ratio Behavioral and Ecological Phenomena Topographical Environment Larval Competition Humidity & Light Intensity Host Size Host Availability Host / Parasitoid Density Oviposition Restraint Mating Delayed & Interrupted Oviposition Heteronomous Parasitoids Theoretical Considertions Physiological Phenomena High Temperature Low Temperature Nutritional Influences Age Photoperiod Selective Breeding Microorganisms Paternal Sex Ratio Exercises References Section 21 <bc-21.htm> Determination of Progeny Number Behavioral and Ecological Phenomena Courtship & Copulation Host Location Host Attack & Paralysis Host Preferences Host Transport Progeny Defense Oviposition Restraint Host / Parasitoid Density Temperature Host Size Humidity Adult Parasitoid Food Larval Competition Ant Activity Learning Physiological phenomena Nutrition (host-feeding) Temperature Humidity Selective Breeding Mating Ovisorption & Ovulation Effects Glands Chemical Communication Genetic and Extrachromosomal Phenomena Exercises References Section 22 <bc-22.htm> Host Defense Reactions Encapsulation (phagocytosis) Melanization Humoral Reactions Incumbered Host Defenses Exercises References Section 23 <bc-23.htm> Diapause in Developmental Stages and the Imago Photoperiod Direct & Indirect Action Perception Photoperiodicity in Geographic Races Seasonal Forms Sensitive Stages Induction Characteristics of Diapause Termination Diapause in Parasitic Insects Endocrine Processes Involved Theories & Experiments Exercises References Section 24 <bc-24.htm> Caste Bias Characteristics Generalizations on Caste Determination Exercises References TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED IN IMPLEMENTATION Section 25 <bc-25.htm> Discovery & Importation of Natural Enemies (Foreign Exploration) Purpose & Need Planning & Preparation Foreign Collaborators Problems Encountered by Explorers from Universities Choosing Targets and Procedure Maximizing Success Potential and Reducing Risks Securing Natural Enemies in the Native Range Searching Outside the Native Range Judgments of Natural Enemy Capability Terrestrial Vertebrates Phytophagous Arthropods & Phytopathogens Terrestrial Scavengers Aquatic Vertebrates & Invertebrates Parasitic & Predaceous Arthropods Considerations on Geographical Origin of the Pest Saissetia oleae Circulifer tenellus Heliothis zea Cydia pomonella Aonidiella aurantii Tetranychus spp. Phthorimaea operculella Nezara viridula Pectinophora gossypiella Misc. medically important Diptera Future Direction and Emphasis Conclusions Exercises References Section 26 <bc-26.htm> Integration of Other Pest Control Methods Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Pest-Upset Versus Pest Resurgence Drawbacks of Chemical Control Selective Pesticides Factors Determining Physical Selectivity Conditions Favoring the Adoption of Biological Control Strategies Political & Economic Framework For Biological Control Research Allocation For Research The Political Economy of Biological Control Research & Research Needs Socio-Economics of Biological Control References

Section 27 <bc-27.htm> Quarantine Procedures Establishing Quarantine Facilities Protocol in Quarantine Operations References Section 28 <bc-28.htm> Culture of Hosts For Natural Enemies Host Food Contaminants Intraspecific Competition Genetic Considerations Physical Environment Behavior Techniques Quality Exercises References to Chapt. 28, 29 & 30 <bc-30.ref Section 29 <bc-29.htm> Culture of Natural Enemies Contamination Genetic Change & Diversity Synthetic Diets Entomophaga / Host Interactions (Host Type & Quality) Diapause Mating Sex-ratio Changes Rearing Density Behavior Techniques Quality Control Exercises References to Chapt. 28, 29 & 30 <bc-30.ref> Section 30 <bc-30.htm> Colonization of Natural Enemies Liberation Procedure Sampling and Distribution (devices) Factors Influencing Establishment Exercises References to Chapt. 28, 29 & 30 <bc-30.ref> SPECIAL RESEARCH GROUPS & INTEGRATED CONTROL Section 31 <bc-31.htm> Biological Control of Coccidae References Section 32 <bc-32.htm> Biological Control in Deciduous Orchards Introduction Management of Secondary Pests Classical Biological Control References Section 33 <bc-33.htm> Biological Control in Tropical & Subtropical Orchards References Section 34 <bc-34.htm> Biological Control in Forests Strategies in Forest Biological Control Importation of Natural Enemies For Introduced Pests Importation of Natural Enemies For Native Pests Augmentation of Natural Enemies Conservation of Natural Enemies Biological Control Organizations in Forestry Detailed Examples Lepidoptera Hymenoptera Coleoptera References <bc-34.ref> Section 35 <bc-35.htm Biological Control in Glasshouses Vegetable Crops Ornamental Plants References Section 36 <bc-36.htm> Biological Control of Arthropods in Grapes Introduction Homoptera Acari Lepidoptera Coleoptera Thysanoptera References Section 37 <bc-37.htm> Biological Control of Medical & Veterinary Pests Mosquitoes Synanthropic Diptera Hymenoptera Snails Illustrated key to parasitoids of synanthropic flies: <PICTORIAL KEY> References: bcdipt.ref Extended References: medvet.ref Section 38 <bc-38.htm> Biological Control of Noxious Plants & Weeds Classical Biological Control Introducing New Natural Enemies For Biological Control Conservation of Biological Control Organisms Augmentation of Natural Enemies History of Plant Control with Natural Enemies Scope of Biological Noxious Plant Control Biological Control Organizations in Noxious Plant Control Plant-Feeding Insect Biology Establishing Phytophagous Biological Control Agents Phytophagous Insect Feeding Habits Specificity to Host Plant Evolution Host Plant Ranges Analysis of Biological Control Projects Herbivore Ecological Attributes Plant Attributes Phytotoxins from Plant Pathogens References Section 39 <bc-39.htm> Biological Control in Cities & Towns Introduction Species Targeted For Biological Control References Section 40 <bc-40.htm> Biological Control of and by Acarina Introduction Acarina for Biological Control of Phytophagous Mites Acarina for Biological Control of Armored Scale Insects Acarina in the Marine Environment References Section 41 <bc-41.htm> Biological Control of Plant Pathogens References Section 42 <bc-42.htm> Biological Control of Arthropods in Range, Forage & Grain Crops References Section 43 <bc-43.htm> Biological Control of Arthropods in Row & Short- term Crops Dynamics in Short Term Crops Natural Control in Short Term Crops Classical Biological Control in Short Term Crops References Section 44 <bc-44.htm> Biological Control of Tephritidae Introduction Specific Examples References Section 45 <bc-45.htm> Biological Control of & Implementing Vertebrates References Section 46 <bc-46.htm> Pesticide Resistance in Beneficial Organisms Documentation Bias Differential Preadaptation Differences in Population Ecology References Section 47 <bc-47.htm> Natural Enemies in Integrated Control References Section 48 <bc-48.htm> Enhancing Natural Enemy Impact Augmentation Conservation Monitoring Populations Rearing Natural Enemies References Section 49 <bc-49.htm> Augmentive & Inundative Strategies With Natural Enemies Trichogramma spp Predatory mites Misc. natural enemies Microbial Pesticides Biological Control and Plant Resistance References Section 50 <bc-50.htm> Biological Control Using Pathogens Introduction Viruses Bacteria Fungi Nematodes Protozoa References: <bc-50.ref> Section 51 <bc-51.htm> Taxonomy of Natural Enemies History... Importance of Taxonomy to Biological Control Natural Enemy Identification Biological Control Contributions to Taxonomy Sources of Taxonomic Expertise General References Keys to Principal Families: <keys.htm> Principal Groups of Insect Parasites & Predators To view details of behavior and illustrations of adult & immature insects, CLICK on <TAXNAMES> . For Key references on biologies, CLICK on <biology.ref.htm> Section 51-B <bc-51b.htm> Morphology of Insects (for Natural Enemy Identification) Section 52 <bc-52.htm> Autocidal & Pheromonal Control References Section 53 <bc-53.htm> Cultural Control Methods Section 54 <bc-54.htm> Selective Use of Pesticides References Section 55 <bc-55.htm> Plant Resistance References Section 56 <bc-56.htm> Predator Biology & Ecology References Section 57 <bc-57.htm> Nutrition of Natural Enemies History Utilization of Food Nutritional Requirements in Development Predator Culture In Vitro Parasitoid Culture In Vitro Adult Entomophage Nutrition Continuous Culture on Artificial Media Contemporary Applications References Section 58 <bc-58.htm> Environmental Management Introduction Kinds of Agroecosystems Types of Environmental Management Mechanisms Involved in Enhancing Natural Enemies Theoretical Aspects of Management References Section 58B <bc-58B.htm> [in process] Biological Control in the Nearctic North of Mexico References: <bc-58B.ref.htm> Section 59 <bc-59.htm> Biological Control in Australasia References: <bc-59.ref.htm> Section 60 <bc-60.htm> {in process] Biological Control in China & Korea References: <bc-60.ref.htm> Section 61 <bc-61.htm> [in process] Biological Control in the Ethiopian Region References: <bc-61.ref.htm> Section 62 <bc-62.htm> Biological Control in Eurasia References: <bc-62.ref.htm> Section 62B <bc-62B.htm> Biological Control in India References: <bc-62B.ref.htm> Section 63 <bc-63.htm> Biological Control in the Middle East References: <bc-63.ref.htm> Section 64 <bc-64.htm> Biological Control in Japan References: <bc-64.ref.htm> Section 65 <bc-65.htm> Biological Control in Southeast Asia References: <bc-65.ref.htm> Section 66 <bc-66.htm> Biological Control in the Neotropics Consequences of Pesticide Use in the Neotropics Biological Control Results in Specific Countries Biological Control Organizations Potential Biological Control Successes in the Neotropics References: <bc-66.ref.htm> Section 67 <bc-67.htm> [in process] Biological Control in Pacific Islands References: <bc-67.ref.htm> Section 68 <bc-68.htm> Naturally Occurring Biological Control in Canada References Section 69 Naturally Occurring Biological Control in the Eastern United States <bc-69.htm> References Section 70 <bc-70.htm> Naturally Occurring Biological Control in the Western United States References POPULATIONS Section 71 <bc-71.htm> Population Theories Single Species Populations Interspecific Competition Host-Parasitoid Systems Host-Pathogen Systems Multispecies Systems Searching in Animals Steady Densities Generalities on Modeling of Arthropod Populations References <bc-71.ref.htm> Special Problems in Population Dynamics <Problems.htm> EVALUATION OF NATURAL ENEMIES Section 72 <bc-72.htm> Life Tables and Evaluation of Natural Enemies Introduction Definitions & Data Collection Kinds of Data in Life Tables Use For Biological Control Systems Assessing Quantitative Impact of Natural Enemies Ecological Roles For Natural Enemies Analysis Experimental Designs For Life Tables Applications to Natural Enemies Other Than Parasitoids Augmentation General References <bc-72.ref.htm> Section 73 <bc-73.htm> Experimental Techniques to Evaluate Natural Enemies Techniques For Evaluation Methods For Detecting Predation/Parasitism Molecular Techniques General References <bc-73.ref.htm> DETAILED CASES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL POOLED REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIES GENERAL REFERENCES