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Introduction Plants yielding fibers have been
second only to food plants in their usefulness to humans and their influence
on the furthering of civilization. Primitive
humans in their attempts to obtain the three most important necessities for
life: food, shelter & clothing,
focused on plants. Even though animal
products were available, some form of clothing was needed that was lighter
and cooler than skins and hides. It
was easier to obtain from plants such items as bowstrings, nets, snares,
etc. Also plant products were
available from the leaves, stems and roots of many plants to construct
shelter. Very early on plant fibers have had a
more extensive use than silk, wool and other animal fibers. Gradually as humans’ needs multiplied, the
use of vegetable fibers increased greatly until presently they continue to be
of great importance even after the onset of plastics. It is impossible to estimate the number of
species of fiber plants, but over a thousand species of plants have yielded
fibers in America alone, and over 800 occur in the Philippines. However, plant fibers of commercial
importance ore relatively few, the greater number being native species used
locally by primitive peoples in all parts of the world. Their durability often exceeds those of
synthetic manufacture, one example being sisal & Manila hemps. The most prominent fibers of the
present are of great antiquity. The
cultivation of flax, for example, dates back to the Stone Age of Europe, as
discovered in the remains of the Swiss Lake Dwellers. Linen was used in Ancient Egypt and cotton
was the ancient national textile of India, being used by all the aboriginal
peop0les of the New World as well.
Ramie or China grass has been grown in the Orient many thousands of
years. Economic Classification (Fibers) Plastic materials are often used instead
of natural products because they cost less and sometimes tend to be more
durable. However, natural plant
products continue to have some superior attributes and are used when
materials are readily available.
There are six principal groups of fibers distinguished according to
the way in which they are used. Textile Fibers are
the most important in that they are used for fabrics, cordage and
netting. To make fabrics and netting
flexible fibers are twisted together into thread or yarn and then either
spun, knitted, woven or in some other way utilized. Fabrics include cloth for wearing apparel, domestic use,
awnings, sails, etc., and also coarser materials such as gunny and
burlap. Fabric fibers are all of some
commercial value. Netting fibers that
are used for hammocks, lace and all forms of nets include many of the
commercial fabric fibers and a number of native fibers as well. Both commercial and native fibers are used
for cordage. For this the individual
fibers are twisted together instead of being woven. Binder Twine, fish lines, hawsers, rope and cables are among
the many types. Brush Fibers are
stiff tough fibers including small stems and twigs that are utilized for
making brooms and brushes. Rough Weaving
& Plaitling Fibers. Plaits are fibrous,
flat and pliable strands that are interlaced to make straw hats, baskets,
sandals, chair seats, etc. The most
elastic strands are woven together for mattings and the thatched roofs of
houses. The supple twigs or woody
fibers are for making chairs, baskets and other wickerwork. Filling Fibers are used for stuffing
mattresses, cushions and in upholstery; for caulking seams in boats and in
casks and barrels; as stiffening in plaster and as packing material. Natural Fabrics are usually obtained
from tree basts that are extracted from bark in layers or sheets and pounded
into rough substitutes for lace or cloth. Fibers for Paper
Manufacture
includes textile fibers and wood fibers that are used in either the raw or
manufactured state.
A plant cannot be restricted absolutely to any single group because
the same fiber may be used for different purposes. Also, a plant may yield more than one kind of fiber. Thus the following discussion includes
species that are considered in the group in which they are of the greatest
importance. Structure &
Occurrence (Fibers)
All fibers are similar in that they are sclerenchyma cells that serve
as part of the plant skeleton. They are
predominantly long cells with thick walls and small cavities and usually
pointed ends. The walls often contain
lignin as well as cellulose. Fibers
occur singly or in small groups, but they are more apt to form sheets of
tissue with the individual cells overlapping and interlocking. Fibers may occur in almost any
part of a plant: stems, leaves,
fruits, seeds, etc. The four main
types grouped according to their origin include bast fibers, wood fibers, sclerenchyma cells associated
with the vascular bundle strands in leaves, and surface fibers that are hair like
outgrowths on the seeds of the plants.
The term “bast fiber” is subject to criticism, as it gives no
indication as to the particular tissue or region in which the fibers occur. It might be preferable to designate those
fibers that occur in the outer parts of the stem as cortical fibers,
pericyclic fibers or phloem fibers.
But “bast” is a term that has been in use for a long time and is so
established in commerce that it will be used in this discussion. Fibers of economic importance
occur in many different plant families, especially those from the
tropics. Some of the more important
families are the Palmaceae, Gramineae, Liliaceae, Musaceae, Amaryllidaceae,
Malvaceae, Urticaceae, Linaceae, Moraceae, Tiliaceae, Bromeliaceae,
Bombacaceae, and Luguminosae.
These fibers must be long and possess a high tensile strength and
cohesiveness with pliability. They
must have a fine, uniform, lustrous staple and must be durable and abundantly
available. Only a small number of the
different kinds of fibers possess these traits and are thus of commercial
importance. The principal textile
fibers are grouped into three classes:
surface fibers, soft fibers and hard fibers, with the last two often
referred to as long fibers. Surface or short fibers include
the so-called cottons. The soft
fibers are the bast fibers that are found mainly in the pericycle or
secondary phloem of dicotyledon stems. Bast fibers are capable of subdivision into very fine flexible
strands and are used for the best grades of cordage and fabrics. Included are hemp, jute, flax and ramie. Hard or mixed fibers are
structural elements found mainly in the leaves of many tropical monocots,
although they may be found in fruits and stems. They are used for the more coarse textiles. Sisal, abacá, henequén, agaves, coconut
and pineapple are examples of plants with hard fibers. Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is one of the
greatest of all industrial crops. It
is the principal fiber plant as well as one of the oldest and most
economical. It was known since
ancient times and well before written records. There are references to cotton by the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Cotton was found in India
before 1,800 B.C. The Hindus were
believed to be one of the first people to weave cloth in the Eastern
Hemisphere, although reference to Nordic traders of woven goods in North
America during the Bronze Age has been made by Fell 1982 (http://faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/bronze/fell2.htm). Cotton was introduced to Europe by the
Arabs who called the plant “qutn.” The
plant had several origins because Columbus found it in cultivation in the
West Indies, and it was known to the Amerindians of Neotropical America in
Pre-Columbian times. Cotton became a
commercial crop in the united States after 1787. Several species of the genus Gossypium provide what we call
cotton. The fine fibrous hairs that
occur on the seeds constitute the raw material. These hairs are flattened, twisted and tubular. They compose the lint, floss or
staple. Their length and other
qualities vary with the different varieties.
The plant is a perennial shrub or small tree naturally, but under
cultivation it is treated as an annual.
It branches freely and grows to a height of 4-8 ft. Cotton thrives in
sandy soil in humid regions that are near water. This environment is typified in the southern United States and
in the river valleys of India and Egypt.
Cotton matures in 5-6 months and is ready to harvest soon after. Hundreds of varieties have been
developed from wild ancestors or produced by breeding during the long period
of cultivation. Varieties differ in
fiber character as well as other morphological features. Cotton is a difficult group to classify
and the exact number of species is subject to argument. Cultivated cottons of commercial
importance are usually referred to one or another of four species: Gossypium barbadense and G.
hirsutum in the Western Hemisphere and G. arboreum and G. herbaceum
in the Eastern Hemisphere. 1.--Gossypium
barbadense probably originated in tropical South
America. The flowers are bright
yellow with purple spots. The fruit,
or boll, has three valves, and the seeds are fuzzy only at the ends. Two distinct types exist: Sea-Island Cotton. This type has never been found in the wild
as it was already being cultivated at the time of Columbus. It has fine, strong and light
cream-colored fibers that are regular in the number and uniformity of the
twists and they have a silky appearance.
These characteristics are valuable and sea-island cotton was formerly
in great demand for the finest textiles, yarns, and lace and spool
cotton. Sea-island cotton was brought
to the United States from the West Indies in 1785. The finest types were developed on the islands off the South
Carolina coast and adjacent mainland.
Here strong and firm stables of two inches or more in length were produced. Another form of sea-island cotton was
grown along the coast in Georgia to Florida and in the West Indies and South
America. This has a staple of
1.5-1.75 in. in length. The yield of
sea-island cotton was lower than other kinds of cotton, but this was
compensated for by the greater value of the fiber. The boll weevil almost completely eradicated production of
sea-island cotton before control measures were discovered. Egyptian
Cotton This cotton is grown in the Nile basin of
Egypt where it was introduced from Central America. The plant is similar in appearance to sea-island cotton and is
believed to be a hybrid. However, the
staple is brown in color and shorter.
Its length, strength, and firmness make this cotton suitable for thread,
undergarments, hosiery, and fine dress goods. Egyptian cotton was brought to the United States in 1902 as an
experimental crop and 10 years later it was recommended to farmers in the
semiarid regions that were under irrigation.
It was then grown in the western states of California, New Mexico and
Arizona. Repeated selection and breeding
resulted in the development of new strains of which Pima
Cotton is of highest quality. 2.--Gossypium hirsutum is a native American species that was grown by Pre-Columbian
civilizations. It is usually called Upland Cotton, and is the easiest
and most economical kind of cotton to grow.
It constitutes the greater part of the cultivated cotton of the
world. The flowers are white or light
yellow and unspotted. The bolls are
four- or five-valved, and the seeds are covered with fuzz. Upland cotton thrives under a variety of
conditions but does best in a sandy soil with abundant moisture during the
growing and fruiting season and dryness during the time of boll opening and
harvest as well as a temperature of 60-90 deg. Fahrenheit. The northern limit of economic growth is
37 deg. N. Lat. The Cotton Belt of
the southern United States grows mostly upland cotton. The fibers are white with a wide range in
staple length (5/8ths to 1.3/8ths in.).
There are over 1210 named varieties, many of which were developed
through breeding experiments. The
species probably originated in Guatemala or southern Mexico and spread
northward to its present limits in North America. A well-marked variety, often recognized as a distinct species,
occurs in the West Indies and along the dry coastal areas of South America as
far as Ecuador and Brazil. Another
variety occurs in Central America, northward along the Gulf of Mexico to
Florida and the Bahamas and in the Greater Antilles. 3.--Gossypium arboreum is the perennial tree
cotton of Africa, India and Arabia.
It was most likely the first to be used commercially, but production
is now confined to India. The staples
are coarse and very short (3/8ths to 34 in. long), but they are strong. 4.--Gossypium herbaceum is the principal
cotton of Asia. It was grown in
Indian in ancient times and continues to be used locally there and in Iran,
China and Japan. Its chief use is for
fabrics, carpets and blankets and is often blended with wool. There are additionally several
wild species of Gossypium in some tropical and
subtropical areas. Cotton used to be an expensive
material because it was difficult to remove the fibers from the seed. The cotton gin developed by Eli Whitney in
1793 changed this situation and a revolution of the industry was
started. Cotton then assumed a very
prominent position in world commerce.
The economics of cotton has had a profound effect on both the
producing and purchasing nations. It
is well accepted that slavery was perpetuated in America because of this
crop. There are several steps necessary
in the preparation of raw cotton fiber in order to prepare it for the textile
industry. These operations involve
ginning in either a saw-tooth or a roller gin, baling, transporting to the
mills, picking to remove any foreign matter and delivers the cotton in a
uniform layer, lapping where three layers are combined into one, carding,
combing and drawing where the short fibers are extracted and the others
straightened and evenly distributed, and finally twisting the fibers into
thread. Cotton is used either by itself or
in combination with other fibers in the manufacture of all types of
textiles. Unspun cotton is
extensively used for stuffing purposes.
Treating the fibers with caustic soda, which imparts a high luster and
silky appearance, makes Mercerized Cotton. Absorbent Cotton consists
of fibers that have been cleaned and from which the oily covering layer has
been removed. It is almost pure
cellulose and makes up one of the basic raw materials of various cellulose
industries. A noteworthy advance in the cotton
industry was the utilization of what were formerly waste products. In the early stages of the industry the
cotton seed along with its fuzzy covering of short hairs or linters was
discarded. However, all parts of the
plant are now conserved to yield products that are valuable. The stalks contain a fiber that can be
used to make paper or fuel and the roots possess a crude drug. The seeds are used for oil extraction and
for livestock feed. The linters give
wadding, stuffing for pads, cushions, pillows, mattress, etc; absorbent
cotton; low grade yarn for twine, ropes and carpets; and cellulose. The hulls are also livestock feed;
fertilizer; lining oil wells to prevent cave-ins of the sides; as a source of
Xylose, a sugar that can be converted into alcohol or
various explosives and industrial solvents.
The kernels yield an important fatty oil, cottonseed oil; and oil cake
and meal are used for fertilizer, livestock feed, and flour and as a dye.
Once the most valuable and useful of fibers, flax gradually became
less important as synthetics and cotton assumed more prominent roles. Flax is more durable than cotton and can
yield a very fine fabric. The plant
has been under cultivation for so long that its point of origin is
unknown. It was used by the Swiss
Lake Dwellers and was known to the ancient Hebrews and is frequently noted in
the Bible. The ancient Egyptians wore
linen and used it for the burial cloths.
They carved pictures of the flax plant on their tombs. Long before the Christian era the Greek
imported flax, and it is believed that the plant was being cultivated prior
to 3,000 B.C.
Flax is in the genus Linum
that contains several wild species of no economic importance as well as Linum
usitatissimum,
the source of the commercial fiber.
The plant is an annual herb with blue or white flowers and small
leaves. It grows to a height of from
1-4 ft. The fibers are formed in the
pericycle and are made up of very tough, stringy strands from 1-3 ft. long
that are aggregates of many long pointed cells with very thick cellulose
walls. Flax does best in soil that is
rich in organic matter and moisture and in temperate regions, but it may be
grown elsewhere. Preparation of the
fibers is a more expensive procedure than for cotton. The crop is harvested and a process known
as rippling breaks the stems. The
fibers may then be rotted out by submerging the stems in water or by exposing
them to dew. During this process
called retting and enzyme dissolves the calcium pectate of the middle
lamella, which holds the cells together, and frees the fibers. After retting the straw is dried and
cleaned and the fibers are completely separated from the other tissues of the
stem by an operation known as scutching.
Finally the shorter fibers that constitute the tow are separated from
the longer fibers. The long fibers are the only ones suited for spinning.
The fibers of flax have great tensile strength, staple length,
durability and fineness. They are
used in the manufacture of linen cloth and thread, canvas, duck, strong twine,
carpets, fish and seine lines, cigarette paper, writing paper and insulating
materials. Fibers from the stalks of
flax grown for seed are too harsh and brittle for spinning but may be used
for other purposes.
The principal production area was Northern Europe, with Russia
producing around 70 percent of the world crop. Some of the finest flax is grown in Belgium. The Pilgrims introduced flax into North
America and these and other colonists were growing sufficient amount for
domestic use until 1900. Flax is a
good crop with which to reclaim native soil and for a long time its
cultivation was confined to the frontier.
Flax is grown for its seed in areas with low rainfall. The seed is used in medicine and as a
source of linseed oil. The term “hemp” is applied loosely
to include a number of very different plants and fibers. The true hemp is Cannabis sativa, a plant native to
Central and Western Asia but has spread worldwide where it often occurs as a
troublesome weed. The plant is a stout, bushy, branching annual that varies
from 5-15 ft in height. It is
dioecious with hollow stems and palmate leaves. The best grade of fiber is obtained from male plants. Hemp requires a mild humid climate and a
rich loamy soil with an abundance of humus.
Calcareous soils are especially suitable. The fiber is white bast that
develops in the pericycle. It is
valuable because of its length that varies from 3-15 ft, its strength and
great durability. However, it lacks the
flexibility and elasticity of flax because of its lignification. Yields are usually high with one acre
producing 2-3 tons of stems, 25 percent of which is fibrous material. The plants are harvested and shocked and
dried. The fibers are separated from
the rest of the bark by retting, either in dew or in water. They are then broken, scutched and
hackled. Hemp must be harvested when
the male flowers are in full bloom or the fibers are too week or too brittle
to be of value. Hemp is an ancient crop that had
been grown in China before 2,000 B.C.
It was introduced into Europe around 1,500 B.C. It reached North America in early colonial
days and became a viable industry in Kentucky and Wisconsin. By the 21st Century very little of the
crop was being grown in North America. Hemp has been used to make ropes,
carpets, twine, and sailcloth, yacht cordage, binder twine, sacks, bags and
webbing. The waste and woody fibers
of the stem were sometimes used to make paper. The finer grades can be woven into a cloth that resembles
coarse linen. The short fibers or tow
and ravelings constitute Oakum. This is used for caulking the seams between the plants in
shipbuilding, in cooperage and as packing for pumps, engines, etc. In the tropics hemp is grown for its seed,
and also for a drug that is gotten from the flowering tops and leaves. The seeds contain oil that is useful in
the soap and paint industries as a substitute for linseed oil. The drug, known as Hashish,
is a resinous substance that contains several powerful alkaloids. In America this type of hemp is known as
Marijuana. Ganja is a specially
cultivated and harvested grade of hemp used for smoking and in beverages and
candies. It has high resin content. Jute has been used almost
extensively as cotton even though it is much less valuable than either cotton
of flax. It is a bast fiber obtained
from the secondary phloem of two species of Corchorus of Asia. The best quality is from C. capsularis, a species with round
pods that is grown in lowland areas subject to flooding. The plant is a tall, slender, somewhat
shrubby annual with yellow flowers that grows to a height of 8-10 ft. It requires a warm climate and a rich,
loamy alluvial soil. Fiber from C. olitorius, and upland species
with long pods, is somewhat inferior but the two are not separated in
commerce. Harvest occurs within 3-4 months
after planting and while the flowers are still in full bloom. The stems are retted in pools or tanks for
several days to rot out the softer gummy tissues, and whipping the stems on
the surface of the water then loosens the jute, or Gunny, strands. The pale-yellow fibers are very long, from
6-10 ft. in length, and they are very stiff being highly lignified. They have a silky luster. They are produced in abundance, but are
not especially strong and they tend to deteriorate when exposed to moisture. Despite these disadvantages they are
economical and easily spun. Plastics
have replaced many of the products formerly made from jute, however. Jute has been used mainly for
rough weaving into burlap bags, gunnysacks and covers for cotton bales. The fiber is also used for twine, carpets,
curtains and coarse cloth. Short
fibers and pieces from the lower ends of the stalks make up jute butts that
have been used in paper manufacture.
India has the largest acreage of jute. Baehmeria nivea is a perennial,
herbaceous or shrubby plant without branches when cultivated. It has slender stalks that reach a height
of 3-6 ft. and they bear heart-shaped leaves that are green above and white
beneath. The plant is from Asia and
was grown in China in ancient times.
It requires a fertile, well-drained soil. Several crops per year compensate for a rather low yield,
especially in North America. Fine fibers are obtained from the
bast, which are very long, strong and durable. They also have a high degree of luster and would be desirable
for textile purposes were it not for difficulties in the extraction and
cleaning process. The stems are first
immersed in water. The bark is then
peeled off and the outer portions and green tissue are scraped off or are
removed by oiling or mechanical means.
The fibers that remain are heavily coated with gum and require further
treatment before they can be used.
They make up the China Grass, or Filasse, that is used in the manufacture of grass cloth and
other dress goods in Asia. Ramie has
been used in Europe for under garments, upholstery, thread and paper. Although it is one of the strongest fibers
known, being three times as strong as hemp, ramie has not been generally used
because the treatment necessary to remove the fibers is very costly. The development of a simpler process has
not increased the use of ramie. Another variety, Boehmeria nivea var.
tenacissima,
is sometimes called Rhea.
This plant is native to Malaya and resembles Ramie except that the
leaves are green on both sides. Rhea
fiber is included under ramie in industry. Crotalaria juncea is an important fiber
plant in Asia. It has been cultivated
since ancient times and there are no known wild ancestors. It is the earliest fiber to be mentioned
in Sanskrit writings (Hill 1952). It
is a shrubby annual legume from 6-12 ft tall with bright yellow flowers. It is grown primarily in southern
India.
Almost all the members of the Malvaceae yield bast fibers that can be
used in textiles. Some of the most
important are as follows: China Jute or Indian
Mallow (Abutilon theophrasti) is an annual plant
that yields a strong, coarse, grayish-white lustrous fiber with
characteristics similar to jute. It
has been extensively grown in China and was introduced into North America
where it can thrive. The fibers have
great tensile strength, take dyes readily and are used in China for making
rugs and paper. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) is a tall herb that yields a fiber with has over 129 names,
among them Deccan, Ambari or Gambo Hemp, Java Jute and Mesta Fiber. It is a substitute for hemp and jute in
the manufacture of coarse canvas, gunnysacks, cordage, matting and fishing
nets. The plant is adapted to a wide
range of climates and soils. Harvest
is right after the flowers come into bloom.
The fibers are 5-10 ft. long and are usually extracted by retting. Kenaf seed yields up to 20 percent of
edible oil on being refined. Roselle or Rama (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is cultivated in
India, Southeastern Asia and some Pacific islands as a substitute for jute
and for its edible fruit. The
light-brown fibers are silky, soft and lustrous. Roselle is adapted to well-drained fertile soil where there is
a 20-in. rainfall. It grows fast and
can be harvested 90 days after planting.
Retting is accomplished in 10-12 days, and the fibers are easily
slipped from the bark. The red fleshy
calices and involucels surrounding the young fruits are acid and provide a
sour relish. The juice is used for
flavoring and in making jellies, jams and wine. Aramina or Cadillo (Urena lobata) occurs as a weed in
most tropical countries. It provides
a yellowish-white fiber that is more durable than jute and is used as a substitute
in some industries. It has been grown
commercially in Cuba, Madagascar, Nigeria, the Congo and Brazil where it is
made into coffee sacks. Other malvaceous species that
yield fibers but which are of minor importance include Okra, Hibiscus esculentus, Majagua,
Hibiscus
tiliaceus, and several species of
the genus Sida. Sida acuta is an extremely easy
plant to harvest and prepare and the fibers are twice as strong as jute. The Amerindians used the bast
fibers of different plant for their bowstrings, nets, etc. Colorado River
Hemp, Sesbania exaltata, was widely used by the western
groups, while Indian Hemp, Apocynum cannabinum,
and Milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, yielded
important fibers for eastern groups of Amerindians. Abacá
or Manila Hemp This is a premier cordage material
that is obtained from several species of wild plantain or banana. Musa textilis is the principal
source. It resembles the true banana but
has narrow more tufted leaves and inedible fruits. The plant forms a clump of 12-30 sheathing leafstalks 10-20 ft.
high with a crown of spreading leaf blades 3-6 ft long. The fiber is secured from the outer
portion of the leafstalks. Mature
stalks are cut at the roots and split open lengthwise. The pulp and the fiber strands are
removed, and the strands are washed and dried. Individual fibers are 6-12 ft.
long, lustrous and variable in color from white to light ocher. They are light, elastic, stiff and very
strong, durable and resistant to both fresh and salt water. Therefore, the main use of abacá has been
in the manufacture of high-grade cordage, especially marine cables. Plastic cables are frequently substituted
but they are not as easy to manage on ships as true abacá. Other products made from this kind of hemp
are binder twine, bagging, strong tissue paper, papier-mâché, wrapping paper
and Manila paper for sacks. In Japan
Manila hemp was used in making movable partitions in houses. The individual fibers cannot be spun, but
strands of fibers are used to make the lustrous cloth known as Sinamay. Musa textilis has been of commercial
importance only in the Philippines although it grows in other Asian countries
as well. The plant was known and used
by the inhabitants of the region centuries before the arrival of the first
European explorers early in the 16th Century. The first shipment was made to North America in 1818. From then until 1918 it was the main
export of the Philippines, amounting to over 300-thousand pounds annually
(Hill 1952). More recently sugar and
sometimes copra have exceeded it in production. Manila help requires a warm
climate, fertile soil, shade, good drainage, abundant moisture and an elevation
lower than 3,000 ft. Suckers and
rootstalks propagate it. The crop is
grown in small fields or on large plantations and matures in 18-36 months. After several failures, Abacá was
successfully introduced into the Western Hemisphere in 1925 in Panama, but
did not develop into a commercial item.
However, with World War II the serious shortages of Manila hemp became
a serious threat to the war effort and the United States government financed
a project in several Central American countries. Machines for cleaning the leaves were devised and installed, and
soon some 26,000 acres were being cultivated that produced 3-million pounds
of fiber. At the end of the war the
industry was soundly established in Costa Rica.
By the middle of the 20th Century agave fibers were next to cotton in
importance in America. By 1952 their
value sometimes amounted to over 36 million dollars per year. But due to
labor costs and the availability of synthetic alternatives their production
declined thereafter. These plants are
stemless perennials with basal rosettes of erect fleshy leaves. The leaves contain fibers that are removed
either by hand or machine. There are
numerous species of local occurrence.
They are very drought tolerant and flourish in dry sterile soils. Several kinds of commercial importance are
discussed as follows: Henequén
or Mexican Sisal (Agave fourcroydes) Amerindian groups have
used this native Mexican species since ancient times. By the mid 20th Century Cuba and the
Yucatan Peninsula produced most of the crop.
The leaves bear spines that make them difficult to handle. The light straw colored fiber is scraped
out from the leaf tissue. It is hard,
elastic and wiry, measuring 2-5 ft. in length. It was used mainly for binder twine, lariats and durable
mats. It is not suited for marine or
hoisting cables, as it is heavy and weak.
Tablemats constructed from this fiber have a beautiful luster and are
resistant to stains. Agave letonae
from El Salvador is a related species.
Production declined dramatically by the 21st Century.
This is very similar in appearance to henequén but the leaves bear few
spines. Native to Mexico and Central
America it was cultivated in Hawaii, the East and West Indies and in several
parts of Africa. The plant is very
drought resistant and will grow where other species fail. Little cultivation is required. The coarse, stiff, light yellow to white
fibers are removed, cleaned, dried and packed in bales for shipment. Synthetic fibers also largely replaced
sisal by the 21st Century. In ancient times there were
several fibers used in Mexico under the names of Istle, Ixtle or Tampico
Fiber. Three species of most
importance are Jaumaveistle, Agave funkiana, Tula
Istle, A.
lecheguilla,
and Palma Istle, Samuela carnerosana. Several species of Yucca were also
grouped under the category of Istle. The fibers are obtained from immature
leaves of wild plants. Although these
fibers are shorter than those of sisal and henequén, they are very strong and
durable. They were formerly used for
brushes and as a cheap substitute for sisal and Abacá to make bagging, twine
and rope. Manila Maguey or Cantala,
Agave
cantala,
is a species from Mexico that was introduced into India and Southeastern
Asia. It was grown commercially in
the Philippines, Java and elsewhere as a substitute for sisal. Mexican Maguey is
obtained from different species of Agave and the fibers are valued only locally by
the inhabitants of the region in which it grows. It was nevertheless a highly valued plant by Amerindians who
used it to make the fermented beverages of Pulque and Mescal. Leaves of the Green aloe, Furcraea gigantea, are the source of Mauritius hemp. The plant is native to tropical America but is grown worldwide,
where local inhabitants use its fiber.
It has been grown commercially in Mauritius, Madagascar, St. Helena and
South Africa, India, Venezuela and Brazil, where it is know as Piteira. The plant
resembles an agave but has larger, less rigid leaves and a very long peduncle
or flower stalk that can reach of height of 20-40 ft. The fibers are very long, 4-7 ft., and
they are white, soft, very flexible and elastic. They are not as strong as sisal and are used either alone or in
a mixture for making bags, hammocks, coarse twine and other cordage. Several other species of Furcraea yield fibers of local
importance in tropical America.
Included are Fique, Furcraea macrophylla, of Colombia; Cabuya, F. cabuya, of Central America;
and Pitre, F. hexapetala, of the West Indies
and sometimes called Cuban Hemp. Also called New
Zealand Flax,
Phormium
tenax
is
from the leaves of an iris like plant.
It is native to wet areas of New Zealand but has been transported
throughout the tropics and temperate regions of the world. In North America it serves as an
ornamental. The fibers are very long,
3-7 ft. in length, and have a high luster.
They are softer and more flexible than abacá and are used mainly for
towlines, twine and other forms of cordage and mattings, and sometimes for
cloth. Many species of the genus Sansevieria occur as wild plants
in parts of tropical Asia and Africa.
These bowstring hemps are herbaceous perennials with basal rosettes of
sword like leaves that arise from a creeping rootstalk. The leaves contain a strong white elastic
fiber that has been used since ancient times for mats, hammocks, bowstrings
and other types of cordage. Wild
plants are generally utilized but some species have been cultivated. The fibers are removed by hand or
mechanically. Important species
include Sansevieria thyrsiflora of tropical Africa, S. roxburghiana of India and S. zeylanica of Sri Lanka. Several species were introduced into North
America among which is the Florida Bowstring Hemp, S. longifolia. This is a term applied to the short,
coarse and rough fibers that make up a large part of the husk of coconut
fruits, Cocos
nucifera.
It is the only prominent fiber that is obtained from fruits. Unripe coconuts are soaked in salt water
for several months to loosen the fibers.
They are then beaten to separate the fibers that are then washed and
dried. The product has varied
uses. In tropical Asia and Pacific
Islands it is the source of Sennit Braid that is used
for cables, small cordage and hawsers.
Coconut fibers are superior to all others for this purpose because
they re very light and elastic and resistant to water. Coir has also been used for brush
bristles, doormats, sacks, floor coverings, some textiles, upholstery, and
stuffing for the bearings of railroad cars and as a substitute for
oakum. Sri Lanka has been the center
for commercial production. In Puerto
Rico Coir was used in horticulture as a substitute for peat. Pineapple, Ananas comosus, is the source of
fibers of great strength and fine qualities.
They are shiny white, very durable and flexible and are not harmed by
water. When grown for the fiber
pineapples are planted closer together and develop longer leaves. The best fibers are gathered from leaves
that have not attained their maximum length.
Two-year old leaves are usually harvested and the fibers scraped out
by hand, which is an expensive process.
After drying and combing, the fibers are tied end to end and can be
woven. In the Philippines Piña Cloth is one of the most delicate and expensive of
fabrics made from these fibers. Aechmea magdalenae is a plant that
resembles pineapple. It is native to
the dry alluvial soils from southern Mexico to Ecuador. The long leaves have a fiber of high quality
known as Pita Floja or Pita. These
fibers are the basis of one of the most ancient and most important native
industries in Oaxaca and have also been used in Central America and Colombia. The fibers are 5-8 ft. long, white or
light cream colored, lustrous, finer and more flexible than other hard fibers
and with a high tensile strength.
They are very resistant to salt water so they are used to make fish
lines and nets. They are also used
for sewing leather. This fiber is a substitute for
jute. It is from Neoglaziovia variegata a bromeliad of the dry,
hot arid areas of northeastern Brazil.
The leaves yield a soft, flexible, white elastic fiber three times as
strong as jute. Caroá is used for
rugs, sacks, textiles, cordage, twine and paper.
Brushes, brooms and whisks are made from various vegetable
fibers. These fibers need to be
strong, stiff and elastic with a high flexibility. Sometimes whole twigs, fine stems or roots are used, or the
fibers are secured from leafstalks.
Several important brush fibers are as follows: A few species of palms that grow
in tropical America and Africa are the source of brush fibers called
commercially Piassava, Piassaba or Bass Fiber. These trees have leaf stalks or leaf
sheaths that yield the stiff, coarse, brown or black fibers in making brushes
for sweeping large areas such as sidewalks and streets West African Piassava is obtained from a wine
palm, Raphia
vinifera
that
grows in profusion in the tidal bayous and creeks of Liberia and other parts
of West Africa. The leafstalks are
retted and the bundles beaten. The
long fibers are used to make mats and brushes. A wine is fermented from the palm tree sap. Brazilian Piassava is from two species of
palm found in profusion in the lowlands of the Amazon and Orinoco
regions. Attalea funifera is the source of Bahia Piassava. The fibers are wiry, stiff and brown and
almost like bristles. They are
removed from the swollen bases of the leafstalks with an ax. They have been used primarily for
street-cleaning machine brushes because the fibers are very durable and
retain their resiliency even when wet. Para Piassava fibers
are formed on the margins of the leaf petioles of Leopoldinia piassaba. They are used not only for brushes and
brooms but also for hats, baskets and ropes. Some other coarse fibers such as
Palmyra and Kittul Fiber are classed as piassava in commerce. Palmyra Fiber is
from the Palmyra
palm, Borassus
flabellifer,
of the East Indies. This palm is one
of the most useful as all parts of the plant are used for some purpose. The fibers are made into twine, paper,
rope and machine brushes. Kittul Fiber is finer, softer and more pliable. It is obtained
from the leaf sheaths of the Toddy palm, Caryota urens, of Sri Lanka and the East Indies. The black bristles are made into strong ropes or into soft
brushes. They also are substitutes
for horsehair and oakum. Cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto, of coastal
southeastern North America yields a valuable fiber called Palmetto Fiber.
The highest-grade fiber is obtained from young leaf stalks that are
still in the bud. Coarser fibers come
from mature leaves or the bases of old leaf stalks surrounding the bud. There was one an industry in Florida that
processed this fiber for use as a substitute for palmyra in brushes. Palmetto fibers are reddish tan in color
and 8-20 in. long. The bud of the
palm is edible and the roots contain tannin. The sorghum, Sorghum vulgare var.
technicum,
differs from other sorghums by having a panicle with long straight
branches. This inflorescence or seed
head is the “brush” that is made into brooms. A dwarf variety exists that furnishes fiber for whiskbrooms,
while the normal sized variety is used for carpet brooms. Harvest is before the end of flowering
season by cutting the stems a few inches below the head. The heads are sorted, threshed and
dried. Another species, Spartina
spartinae,
is a native grass of the southern Coastal Plain from Florida to Mexico that
has been used in combination with the sorghum. Brooms often consist of as much as 50 percent Spartina surrounded by
broomcorn. Broomroot or Zacaton, Muhlenbergia macroura, is used to manufacture cheaper
brushes. The plant is a grass found
from Texas to Central America, especially in the mountainous regions of
Mexico. It is a perennial with tufted
wiry culms and coarse roots. The
roots are the plant part utilized.
They are harvested year-round, washed, cleaned and dried. They are then cut from the tops, graded
according to quality, length and color and baled for export. Rough Weaving &
Plaiting Fibers
There are relatively few materials that are manufactured for plaited
or coarsely woven articles. The raw
materials include the rushes, stems of reeds, willows, bamboo, grasses,
rattan and leaves and roots. They are
used entirely or split. They are
woven or twisted together in a simple manner and made into sandals, mats,
hats, matting, screens, chair seats, baskets, etc. In many parts of the Eastern
Hemisphere, rice, barley, wheat and rye are grown for the purpose of making
braids or straw plaits for hats. The plants
are grown close together so that they will have few leaves, and they are
harvested before they mature. The
stems are split lengthwise before plaiting.
The Leghorn Hats and Tuscan
Hats of Italy are some of the best of the straw hats. Panama Hats are
made from the leaves of Toquilla, Carludovica palmata, a stem less, palm
like plant that grows wild in the forests from southern Mexico to Peru. It has been cultivated in Ecuador and
parts of Colombia. The Panama hat
industry is concentrated in Ecuador.
Young leaves are collected while they are still folded in the bud and
treated with hot water. The coarse
veins are removed and the plaits are separated and split lengthwise into
slender strips that are slowly dried and bleached. They gradually roll inward forming fine cylindrical strands
known as Jipijapa.
The hats are woven by hand from these strands. About six leaves are necessary to make one
hat. The best quality Panama hats are
uniform and have a fine texture, are strong, durable and elastic and
resistant to water. The Puerto Rican Hats are made from the leaves of the Hat palm, Sabal causiarum. In the Eastern Hemisphere
commercial mattings have been made from several rushes, grasses and
sedges. Usually the stalks or leaves
are used alone, but they may be combined with cotton of hemp. Some of the species utilized are Chinese Mat Grass, Cyperus tegetiformis, and Japanese Mat Rush, Juncus effusus. The Screw
Pines, Pandanus
tectorius
and P. utilis are important in
Southeastern Asia and Oceania for making mats. The leaves of these species are also used for sugar bags,
cordage, hats and thatching. Baskets have been and are continuously
being made from an array of plant species worldwide. Roots, stems, leaves and even woody
splints have been used. Commercial
baskets are usually made from rushes, cereal straw, osiers or willows, and
ash or white oak splints. Sweet grass
baskets are made from Hierochloe odorata, a common species in lowlands along the coast and Great
Lakes. Another important source of
basket fiber is the Raffia
palm, Raffia
pedunculata,
native to Madagascar. Strips of the
lower epidermis of the leaves are the raffia of commerce. The fiber is so soft and silk like that it
can be woven. It is especially useful
as a tie material for nurseries and gardens.
This includes chair seats, chairs, infant carriages, hampers and other
light articles of furniture. Willows,
rattan and bamboo are the main plants used. Rattan is obtained from
several species of climbing palms, Calamus spp., that grow in the
humid forests of the East Indies and other parts of tropical Asia. The stems of these plants are long,
strong, flexible and uniform. They
are used either entirely or as splits in Asia for furniture, canes, baskets
and other items. A considerable
quantity of rattan is exported for making furniture. Bamboos occur in most tropical areas, but they are especially abundant
in the monsoon regions of Eastern Asia.
They are the largest of the grasses with woody stems that sometimes
reach one foot in diameter and a height of over 10 feet. There are many species in the families Arundinaria, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Phyllostachys, and other genera. The stems are used for all kinds of
construction in areas where these plants grow. Exported bamboo is used in the manufacture of furniture, fishing
rods and implements of various kinds.
Bamboo splits are made into baskets and brushes. In the Western Hemisphere bamboos
have not been extensively utilized. Guadua angustifolia is a species with very
strong culms and has been used in Ecuador to make furniture and in house
construction.
Many plant fibers have been used to stuff pillows, cushions,
furniture, mattresses, etc. They are
also used to caulk the seams of vessels, in the making of staff for
buildings, as stiffening for plaster, packing for bulkheads and machine
bearings, and for the protection of delicate objects during shipment. Synthetic materials frequently take the
place of these long used products, but in some ways they retain some
superiority. Surface fibers are
commonly used for stuffing because their staples are too short to be spun and
thus are not valued in the textile industry.
Bast fibers are too costly, and hard fibers are frequently too stiff
and coarse. The silk cottons are the
most important source for stuffing. This is the most popular silk
cotton and most valuable of all the stuffing substances. Kapok is the floss produced in the pods of
the Kapok
tree, Ceiba
pentandra. Originally confined to the American
tropics, it is now found worldwide.
It is an irregular tree, 50-100 ft. tall, with a buttressed base and
peculiar growth habit. It grows
rapidly and begins to bare when only 15 ft. tall. A mature tree can produce more than 600 pods and from 6-10 lbs.
of the cottony fibers. Pods are
clipped from the branches and opened.
The floss is removed and the seeds separated by centrifugal
force. The floss is 1/2-1 1/2 in.
long and whitish, yellowish or brownish in color. It is very fluffy, light and elastic and is thus an ideal
stuffing material for mattresses and pillows. The fibers have a low specific gravity. They are five times more buoyant than cork
and are impervious to water.
Therefore, kapok is valuable as a filling for life preservers,
cushions, portable pontoons, etc. Its
low thermal conductivity and its high ability to absorb sound make kapok an
excellent material for insulating small refrigerators and for soundproofing
rooms. It has also been used for the
linings of sleeping bags, gloves for handling dry ice and in the tropics as
surgical dressings. Kapok seeds have
45 percent fatty oil that is extracted and used for soap and food. There are a number of other plants
with seed hairs or floss that can be used as a substitute for kapok. The Red Silk Cotton Tree or Simal, Salmalia malabarica, is a very large ornamental tree. It supplies reddish floss known as Indian
Kapok that has been important as a stuffing in India for centuries. The White Silk Cotton Tree, Cochlospermum religiosum, yields a fiber of
some importance. This handsome tree
is native to India but is now widespread in the world tropics. It is also one source of Kadaya Gum. Madar, Calotropis gigantea, and the related Akund, Calotropis procera, are shrubs native to
Southern Asia and Africa that produce a silk of some importance. Although inferior to kapok, this substance
is often used in mixtures with kapok. The Pochotes
of
Mexico, Ceiba
aesculifolia,
C.
acuminata,
etc., yield a silk cotton almost equal to kapok in buoyancy and
resiliency. Palo
Borracho,
Chorisia
insignis,
and Samohu, Chorisia speciosa, of South America
yield large amounts of a glossy, white silk cotton with properties similar to
kapok. <bot183> Pink-flowering
Floss Silk Tree [Chorisia speciosa], Concordia,
Argentina All of the milkweeds have silky
hairs on their seeds and several species are a source of stuffing
materials. Milkweed floss is one of
the lightest materials. it is very
buoyant and a perfect insulator. It
was used during World War II as a substitute for kapok. The pods contain oil and a wax that may
have future applications. Some
species yield textile fibers. In
North America, Asclepias
syriaca
and A. incarnata produce abundant
floss. In the Neotropics, A. curassavica has some value.
There are innumerable plants and fibers that have use as filling
materials. Included are cereal straw,
cornhusks, Spanish Moss and Crin Végétal. Spanish Moss, Tillandsia usneoides, is a conspicuous tree epiphyte in Southeastern North
America. This is an excellent
substitute for horsehair after it is processed. The plant is pulled from the trees with rakes or hooks, or it
is collected from the ground or water.
It is then fermented in order to rot off the gray outer covering and
ginned to remove impurities. The
prepared fiber is brown or black, lustrous and very resilient. It has been used in upholstery and for
automobile cushions. Crin Végétal. Chamaerop humilis a dwarf fan palm of
Northern Africa and the Mediterranean region in which the leaves have
shredded and twisted fibers. These
have been used as stuffing material. Some trees have basts with tough interlacing fibers that
can be extracted from the bark in layers or sheets and can then be pounded
into rough substitutes for cloth. Tapa
Cloth is one of these as it
once constituted the main clothing in Polynesia and parts of Eastern
Asia. The material is obtained from
the bark of the Paper
mulberry, Broussonetia
papyrifera. Strips of bark are peeled from the trunk
and the outer coating is scraped away.
After soaking in water and cleaning these strips are placed on a
hardwood log and pounded with a mallet.
Overlapping the edges and beating them together unite the individual
strips. The finished product varies
according to thickness from muslin like material to one of leather. Tapa cloth is frequently dyed. Similar bark cloths have been
manufactured from different sources since antiquity. In South America the Amerindians used the Tauary, Couratari tauari, and other species of
the same genus. In Mozambique the Wild fig, Ficus nekbudu, was used as a source
of Mutshu Cloth.
The Upas Tree, Antiaris toxicaria, of Sri Lanka furnishes a bark cloth. it is also the source of an important
poison used with arrows. Lace Bark is the product of Lagetta lintearia, a small tree of Jamaica. The inner bark is removed in sheets and
can be stretched into a lacelike material with pentagonal meshes. It is suitable as a textile and ornament. Cuba Bast
is
from Hibiscus
elatus,
a small bushy tree of the West Indies.
The inner bark is removed in long ribbon-like strips that have been
used in millinery and for tying cigars. The vegetable sponges, Luffa cylindrica and L. acutangula, yield a unique
fiber. These are climbing cucumbers
of the tropics that bear edible fruits containing a lacy network of stiff
curled fibers. This material is
extracted by retting in water. After
cleaning it is used for making hats, for washing and scouring machinery, in
certain types of oil filters and as a substitute for bath sponges. A large amount of this material used to be
exported by Japan. The manufacture of paper requires
the use of cellulose present in plant fibers. This subject is discussed under Forest
Products
The artificial fibers in use in the textile industry are mostly
organic in nature, with synthetic glass fibers being the exception. The organic materials utilized are cellulose,
plant and animal proteins, and synthetic resins, such as nylon that is made
from soft coal, water and air. The
cellulose fibers are discussed under Forest
Products,
while the protein fibers are of only minor importance. Although they have many of the general
properties of wool, their low strength when wet is a serious detriment. Soybeans, corn and peanuts are the main
plant sources of protein fibers. |