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Spices and Other Flavoring Substances
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Spices from Roots
& Rootstalks Angelica
Galangal Ginger Horseradish
Sasaparilla Tumeric Zedoary Spices from Barks
Cassia Cinnamon
Sassafras Spices from Flowers
or Flower Buds Capers Cloves Saffron Flavoring from Flowers
Spices from Fruits Allspice
Capsicum Sweet or Bell Peppers Paprikas Chiles Juniper Black & White Pepper Long Pepper
Star Anise
Vanilla Savory “Seeds”
Anise Caraway Celery Coriander
Cumin Dill Fennel Spices from Seeds
Cardamon Fenugreek
Grains of Paradise Mustard White Mustard Black Mustard
Indian Mustard Nutmeg & Mace Tonka Beans
Spices from Leaves Balm Basil Marjoram
Peppermint Sage Savory Spearmint
Thyme Bay Parsley Terragon
Wintergreen
Minor Savory
Leaves Other
Spices & Flavoring Substances
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Spices have been put to many uses
such as to season insipid foods and to give zest to an otherwise monotonous
diet as well as to serve as preservatives.
Their aromatic qualities were useful in overcoming offensive odors of
spoiled food. They were used in
beverages, medicine and even in lieu of currency. Rich and poor alike sought after spices and they were expensive
because of the demand and the difficulty and cost of obtaining them. They were the basis of many great fortunes
during 1300-1700 A.D. The use of spices then somewhat
diminished in modern times, especially as other means of food preservation
were deployed. The practice of
importing the various aromatic materials in a crude state and converting them
into a powdered or ground form is still followed in an effort to prevent adulteration
and to ensure the quality of the final product. Essential oils that are obtained from the various substances
are also imported in large quantity. Spices are not usually classed as
foods for they contain little of nutritive value. However, they do give an agreeable flavor and aroma to food and
greatly enhance the pleasure of eating.
They stimulate the appetite and increase the flow of gastric
juices. Therefore, they are often
called food accessories or adjuncts.
Their value is due to the presence of the essential oils and
occasionally to other aromatic entities.
The medicinal value of spices is
not a great as was believed during the Middle Ages, but a large number of
them are still official drugs in both Europe and America. They are used as carminatives and
antiseptics and to hide the unpleasant taste of other drugs. They also are important in many industries
and are used in perfumery, incense, and soaps, as dyes, in histology and in
some arts. Most spices are still obtained
from the tropics, predominantly Asia.
Africa supplies the grains of paradise while tropical America
furnishes vanilla, red pepper and allspice.
A small number are found in the cooler temperate regions of the Old
World. Classification of spices is
difficult as there are no absolute boundaries between the various
groups. Usually all aromatic
vegetable products that are used for flavoring foods and drinks are included
under spices. In other cases the term
“spice” is confined to hard or hardened parts of plants that are usually used
in a pulverized condition. Condiments
are spices or other flavoring substances that have a sharp taste and are
usually added to food after it has been cooked. Savory seeds are small fruits or seeds that are used
whole. In the sweet or savory herbs,
fresh or dried leaves are used for flavoring or garnishing. Essences are aqueous or alcoholic
extractions of the essential oils.
Because of the difficulty of distinguishing between spices,
condiments, and the other flavoring substances, it is probably best to
consider this group on a morphological basis== the nature of the plant part
utilized (Hill 1952). A few more
common spices out of the hundreds in existence are herein considered under roots,
barks, buds and flowers, fruits, seeds, and leaves
and stems. Spices from Roots & Rootstalks Angelica, Angelica archangelica,
is a stout perennial herb with large pinnately compound leaves and small
greenish-white flowers in terminal compound umbels. It is indigenous to Syria but now occurs in many parts of
Europe and Western Asia in low ground.
It has even made it to boreal regions in Lapland and the Alps. The entire plant is aromatic. The roots and fruits are dried and used
for flavoring cakes, candy and beverages, such as vermouth and the various
bitters and liqueurs. The young stems
and leafstalks are candied by steeping them in syrups of increasing
strength. Candied angelica is used
for decorating and flavoring other candy and cakes because of its attractive
bright green color and aromatic taste.
The oil that is usually distilled from the fruits is used in
flavoring, perfumery and medicine. It
is widely cultivated in Germany and it dates from about 1,500 AD. Lesser Galangal, Alpinia officinarum, is
native to southern China and was in ancient times there. It is a perennial herb with a raceme of
showy flowers and ornamental foliage.
The reddish-brown rhizomes have an aromatic, spicy odor and a pungent
taste, like a mixture of pepper and ginger.
Galangal has lost much of its importance in modern times, bit it is
still used to some extent in cooking, medicine and for flavoring liqueurs and
bitters. Greater Galangal, Alpinia galanga, is a
larger plant of Java and Malaya. It
is also used for flavoring purposes. Ginger, Zingiber officinale, is the most important
spice that is obtained from roots. It
has a long and interesting history. Indigenous in Southeastern Asia, it was used in China and India
in ancient times, and was brought by caravans to Asia Minor before the Roman
Empire. It was among the first of the
oriental spices to be known in Europe where it became prominent early in the
Middle Ages. For many years it was an
important drug, being the principal ingredient of a remedy for the plague
especially in England during the reign of Henry VIII. Ginger is now cultivated over a wider area
than most spices due most likely to the ease with which the roots can be
transported. It was one of the first
Asiatic spices to be grown in the Western Hemisphere. The plant is an erect perennial herb with thick scaly
rhizomes that branch digitately and are known as “hands.” The stem reaches a height of about three
feet and is surrounded by the sheathing bases of the leaves. The flowers are borne in a spike with
greenish-yellow bracts subtending the yellowish flowers that have a purple
lip. Ginger is mostly cultivated in
small home gardens. A rich moist
soil, partial shade and a tropical climate are desirable. Propagation is by rhizomes. The rhizomes are pale yellow in color externally and a
greenish yellow inside. They contain
starch, gums, an oleoresin and an essential oil. The different varieties vary in the content of the latter two
contents. The rhizomes are removed
from the soil after the aerial parts of the plant have withered. Two ways are used to prepare ginger. In Preserved Green Ginger the young
juicy rhizomes are dried, cleaned, and boiled in water until tender. They are then peeled, scraped, and boiled
several times in a sugar solution.
They are finally packed in a similar solution. Sometimes preserved ginger is prepared in
a dry state by dusting the drying rhizomes with powdered sugar. In Dried or Cured Ginger the
rhizomes are cleaned, carefully peeled and dried in the sun. They are sometimes parboiled in water or
limejuice before peeling. This is the
black ginger of commerce. Bleaching
the rhizomes makes white ginger. An essential oil contributes to the aromatic odor of
ginger, while the pungent taste is due to the presence of the nonvolatile
oleoresin, Gingerin. Ginger is used more as a condiment than as a spice. It dilates the blood vessels in the skin,
causing a feeling of warmth and increases perspiration with an accompanying
drop in temperature. Ginger is used in medicine as a carminative and a
digestive stimulant. It is widely
used in culinary preparations, such as soups, pickles, puddings, gingerbread
and cookies and is an ingredient of all curries except those used with
fish. Ginger is very popular for
flavoring beverages such as ginger ale and ginger beer. It was once added to wine and porter. The oleoresin is extracted and used in
medicine and flavoring. The essential
oil is also extracted. Ginger is grown mainly in China, Japan, Sierra Leone,
Queensland, Indonesia and Jamaica and other West Indies islands where the
soil and climate are favorable. Armoracia lapathifolia is indigenous to
Southeastern Europe. The plant is
widely grown both in Europe and America and often escapes from cultivation
and becomes established as a troublesome weed. It is a tall hardy plant with glossy green toothed leaves and
masses of small whtie flowers. The
large, fleshy, white cylindrical roots are usually dug in the autumn. They are scraped or grated and used as a
ocndiment, either fresh or preserved in vinegar. The pungent taste is due to a glucoside, Sinigrin, that
is broken down in water by enzyme action.
it is similar to mustard oil in its properties. Horseradish is a valuable condiment that
has been used for centuries as it aids digestion and prevents scurvy.
Sasaparilla, is obtained from
the dried roots of some tropical species of Smilax, among them Similax
aristolochiaefolia from Mexico, S. officinalis from
Hondurus and S. regelii from Jamaica.
The plants are climbing or trailing vines with prickly stems. They are found in dense moist jungles. Propagation is by seed, layering, cuttings
or suckers. They have a short thick
rhizome and very long thin roots that extend to 10 ft. Thus the collection of roots is a
laborious process. They are harvested
when 2-3 years of age. The roots have
a bitter substance that is used for flavoring. Sasaparilla is usually used in combination with wintergreen and
other aromatics. it was once used in
medicine. Turmeric, Curcuma longa, is both a dye and a
spice. It is native to Cochin China
and the East Indies and is widely cultivated in all the world tropics. Turmeric is popular in India where
enormous quantities have been used for centuries. The plant is a robust perennial with a short stem and tufted
leaves. The pale yellow flowers are
borne in dense spikes, topped by a tuft of pinkish bracts. The rhizomes that supply the colorful
condiment are short and thick with blunt tubers. They are cleaned, washed and dried in the sun. Turmeric is very aromatic with a musky
odor and it has a pungent bitter taste.
It is used to flavor, and at the same time color, butter, cheese,
pickles, mustard and other foodstuffs.
Turmeric is one of the main ingredients of curry. Curry is not a single substance, but a
compound of many spices. Each type of
meat or other food requires its own particular curry. One recipe for a meat curry includes
turmeric, coriander, cinnamon, cumin, ginger, cardamom, fenugreek, cayenne
pepper, pimiento, black pepper, long pepper, cloves and nutmeg. Another curry, used for fish, is made of
turmeric, coriander, black pepper, cumin, cayenne pepper and fenugreek. Zedoary, Curcuma zedoaria, is similar in habit
to Turmeric but with pale yellowish or white flowers and showy crimson or
purple bracts. It is extensively
grown in India for the large tuberous rhizomes that are sliced and
dried. It is used as a spice for
flavoring liqueurs and curries.
However its principal use today is in medicine, perfumery and
cosmetics. Cassia, Cinnamomum cassia, is also known as
Chinese Cinnamon. It is a spice that
was used in China since 2,500 B.C., in Egypt in the 17th Century B.C. and was
familiar to people of the Mediterranean region since ancient times. In the earlier records it is often
confused with cinnamon. Cassia is an
evergreen tree of Burma that reaches 40 ft in height, with smooth pale bark,
small pale yellow flowers and a fleshy drupe like fruit. The tree is grown in southern China from
seed, usually on terraced hillsides.
Trees from 60-10 years of age are cut down and cut up into short
lengths. The bark is loosened,
stripped off and dried. Cassia bark
reaches the markets in the form of dark reddish brown “quills,” usually with
some patches of grayish cork on the outside.
It varies in quality, but is always very aromatic although not as
delicate as cinnamon. It contains
tannin, sugar, starch, a dye, a fixed oil and the essential oil that is
distilled and used in medicine and flavoring. Cassia buds are the dried unripe fruits that contain
the same essential oil. They are
picked when only one-fourth grown and resemble small cloves. Sources of cassia of lesser importance are Indian
cassia from Cinnamomum tamala; Padan cassia with smooth bark and no
cork from C. burmannii from Indonesia. Large amounts of this cassia have been exported to
America. Oliver’s bark, C. oliveri,
of Australia and Massola bark, C. massoia, of New Guinea are of lesser
importance.
The bark and oil of cassias
are used in medicine, for flavoring and in soap, perfumery and candy. Cinnamon, Cinnamomum zeylanicum,
quickly superseded cassia once it was discovered. Native people used it long before it attracted the foreign
trade. It is native to Sri Lanka and
is often called Ceylon cinnamon. For
years it was grown only in Sri Lanka and was a monopoly of the Portuguese,
Dutch and English in succession.
Today the tree is grown in southern India, Burma, and parts of Malaya
and in tropical America. The plant is an evergreen shrub or small tree with
attractive dark coriaceous aromatic leaves, numerous inconspicuous yellow
flowers and blackish berries. When cultivated
the young trees are cut back and sucker shoots develop from the roots. These are long and slender and provide the
commercial product. They are cut
twice a year, the bark is removed and the outer and inner portions are
scraped away. After drying compound
quills are tied up ready for shipment.
The waste is used as a source of oil of cinnamon. The leaves and roots are also aromatic but
the essential oil differs from that in the bark and is of little value. Cinnamon is a very popular spice for flavoring
foods. It is also used in candy, gum,
incense, dentifrices and perfumes.
The oil is used in medicine as a carminative, antiseptic and
astringent and as a source of cinnamon extract.
Saigon cinnamon or Saigon cassia, Cinnamomum loureirii, is
grown in Vietnam. Its coarse bark is
valued in China and Japan and is also used in America where it is recognized
as an official cinnamon in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. <bot71>
Cinnamon Tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) [Ceylon], (ex.
Riverside, CA) Although not a true spice, sassafras is an important
flavoring material. It is obtained
from the bark on the roots of Sassafras albidum of eastern North
America. The sassafras is a tree of 60-100
ft. height with typically lobed leaves and greenish yellow dioecious flowers
produced before the leaves and dark blue drupes with red stalks. Amerindians and early colonists used the
spicy root bark. All parts of the
plant are aromatic. The bark is
gathered in the spring or autumn, deprived of the outer corky layers and
dried. The supply comes mainly from
Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia and North Carolina. Sassafras is used for flavoring tobacco, patent medicines, root
beer and other beverages, soaps, perfumes, dentrifices and gum. Both sassafras bark and sassafras pith are
used in medicine. The oil is obtained
by distillation and is used for flavoring and as a source of artificial
heliotrope. It is also an ingredient
of soap and floor and polishing oils. Spices from Flowers or Flower Buds Capparis spinosa is a trailing spiny shrub only
a few feet tall. It is native to the
Mediterranean region and is cultivated in Southern Europe and the southern
United States. The solitary berrylike
fruits are borne on thick stalks. The
unopened flower buds are gathered every morning and pickled in salt and
strong vinegar. These capers are
roughly spherical and round angled, and dark green in color. They have a very pungent taste and are used
as condiments with meat and in sauces and pickles. Cloves, Syzygium aromaticum,
were in use in the 3rd Century B.C. in China, was well known to the Romans
and reached northern Europe during the Middle Ages. Their source and place of origin were not known until the
Portuguese discovered the Molucca Islands in the 16th Century. For a while cloves were a Portuguese and
later a Dutch monopoly. Today they are
grown all over the world’s tropics. The clove is the unopened flower bud of a small,
conical and very symmetrical evergreen tree.
In the wild state it produces clusters of crimson flowers, but in
cultivation it never reaches the flowering state. The flower buds are greenish or reddish when fresh and become
brown and brittle on drying. They
have a nail-like shape and the name “clove” is derived from the French word
for nail, clou. They have a
slightly cylindrical base surmounted by the plump, ball-like unopened corolla
that is surrounded by the 4-toothed calyx.
The buds are picked by hand, stemmed and dried in the sun or in
kilns. The crop is difficult to grow,
as yields are uncertain. Curttngs are
useless and the seeds germinate and grow slowly. Therefore, nursery seedlings are usually necessary for large
scale propagation. The yield is low
until trees are at least 20 years old.
Adequate moisture in the soil is required and growth is best near the
ocean. Cloves are very aromatic and fine flavored imparting
warming qualities. They have many
uses both whole and in the ground state, as a culinary spice, for the flavor
blends well with both sweet and savory foods. They are used for flavoring pickles, curries, ketchup and
sauces, in medicine and for perfuming the environment. Cloves have stimulating properties and are
one of the ingredients of betel-nut chew.
Clove cigarettes are smoked in Java. The essential oil that is obtained by distilling cloves
with water or steam is also valuable.
it is used in medicine as an aid to digestion and for its antiseptic
and antispasmodic action. it is often
used as a local antiseptic in dentistry.
Externally it has a counterirritant action. it is an ingredient in many toothpastes and mouthwashes. The oil has many industrial applications
and is widely employed in perfumes, in scenting soap and as a clearing agent
in histological preparations. The
main constituent of the oil, Eugenol, is extracted
and used as an imitation carnation in perfumes and for the formation of
artificial vanilla. Clove stems are a commercial product with a lesser
content of the essential oil. The
dried fruits, known as mother cloves, are also valuable. Zanzibar, Indonesia, Mauritius and the
West Indies produce most of the crop. <bot451>
Clove orchard [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry] in
Jamaica highlands Saffron Crocus, Crocus sativus, cultivation
dates to the time of the Greeks and Hebrews and is still carried on in many
parts of Europe and the Orient. The
dried stigmas and tops of the styles are used as a spice and as a dye. Saffron was of great importance during the
Middle Ages for its both real and fancied value in medicine. It is used today as a flavoring and as an
ingredient of many Continental dishes, especially the famous French
bouillabaisse. The essential oils in certain
flowers are often used for flavoring candy, cakes and similar products,
though as in the case of perfumes, synthetic substances have replaced the
natural ones. Otto of Roses and the
oil from sweet violets are still used.
Floral syrups are also prepared and used for flavoring ices and
beverages. Crystallized flowers are
used that are prepared by placing fresh flowers in baskets and allowing sugar
syrup to trickle over them until saturation.
They are then dried in the sun or with artificial heat. These confections have the flavor imparted
by the respective essential oils. The
industry centers in Grasse, France.
The flowers utilized include violets, rose petals, lavender,
carnations, lilac and orange. Pimenta dioica, is a small tree native to the
West Indies and parts of Central and South America. The dried unripe fruits make up the spice called allspice, Pimento or Jamaica pepper. The name “allspice” comes from the flavor
that resembles a combination of cinnamon, nutmeg and clove. The tree is evergreen, 20-30 ft. tall with greenish
white flowers and purple fruits. The
ripe fruits lose most of their aromatic qualities so the commercial product
is gathered when the berries are mature but still green. Branches are broken off and the fruit
removed by hand or flails. The ripe
and undersized berries are discarded and the desirable ones dried for several
days. They become wrinkled and turn
dull reddish brown while the aroma becomes more pronounced. This tree is common in Jamaica where it
does not have to be cultivated. It
grows slowly and begins to bare when about 7 years old and continues to bear
for 12 years with an average yield of 75-100 lbs. per tree. Allspice is used as a culinary spice in a mixture with
other spices of alone. It is
especially favored for pickles, sausages, soups and sauces. The extracted oil is used for flavoring
and perfumery. The leaves contain an
inferior oil of bay that is sometimes used to adulterate bay rum. The wood is used for canes and umbrella
handles. Although Jamaica produces
most of the commercial product, Mexico and Guatemala grow a small amount. The most important contribution of America to the
spices is capsicum or red pepper.
Today these are actually consumed in large quantity as a vegetable, but
will be treated in this section. This
condiment is obtained from the fruits of several different plants all of
which belong to the genus Capsicum.
The genus is native to tropical America and the West Indies. The use of capsicums in America date back
to pre-Inca times. Capsicums reached
Europe shortly after the voyages of Columbus who found the West Indian
natives commonly using red pepper,
By 1600 capsicums had become widespread in the Eastern tropics where
they are an important part of the diet to this day. The long time that capsicums were cultivated by
Amerindians has resulted in many varieties that differ in habit and in the
size, shape, color and pungency of the fruit. Among these are the bell peppers, chiles, paprikas, pimientos,
tabascos and others. They are
believed by many authorities to be derived from a single species known
variously as Capsicum frutescens of C. annuum. All of the capsicums contain an indigestible skin that
covers the fruit. This can be removed
by roasting the fruits over an open flame or in a broiler for a few minutes
on each side. The skin then blisters
and may be easily removed, which facilitates digestion. Capsicum frutescens var. grossum are herbs or
slightly woody plants, 2-3 ft. tall, with ovate leaves, white flowers with a
rotate corolla and many-seeded fleshy fruits that are technically
berries. The fruits are large and
puffy with a depression at the base and are yellow or red in color when
ripe. This variety includes some of
the mildest of all the capsicums as the pungent principle is confined to the
seeds. They are widely used in
temperate areas of America and Europe where they are used as a fruit
vegetable rather than a spice. Both
green and ripe peppers are consumed raw in salads, or are cooked in various
ways, stuffed peppers being very popular.
They are also used in pickles.
The plants are grown as annuals or biennials, depending on the
climate. A long season is required
but they are well adapted to cooler areas for they are somewhat frost
tolerant. These are European varieties with
large mild fruits. Spanish paprika,
better known as pimiento, produces attractive fruits with a typical flavor,
but entirely lacking in pungency.
They are preserved and are used in cheese preparations and stuffed
olives. They are also grown in South
America, California and Georgia.
Hungarian paprika has long pointed fruits that are more pungent. They are dried and used for powdered
paprika or fresh in salads. The uses
of paprika as a condiment and in cooking are well known. It has high vitamin content. Capsicum frutescens var. longum are wholly
tropical and subtropical plants. They
are more woody and taller with small pod like berries and innumerable small
flat seeds. The crimson or orange-red
fruits are elongated, conical, somewhat flattened and very pungent. The pungent principles are present in the
flesh, rind and seeds. These peppers
are cultivated throughout the world tropics.
The African varieties are the hottest, but Japanese chiles are more
favored for culinary purposes. The
ripe fruits are dried in the sun and used whole or powdered. The ground fruits constitute the cayenne
pepper or red pepper of commerce.
Capsicum is used in medicine internally as a powerful stimulant and
carminative and to prevent fever. It
is used externally as a counterirritant.
It is extensively used in such beverages as ginger ale because of its
pungency. There are countless
culinary uses for chiles. These
peppers are especially favored in the America tropics where they are used in
chile con carne, tamales and other dishes.
Extracting the pulp by pressure and pickling in brine or strong
vinegar makes pepper sauce. Tabasco
sauce is pepper sauce made from a small variety grown in Louisiana. In North America Mexico, California, New Mexico and
Texas are the chief producers of chiles.
Many varieties with varying degrees of pungency are grown and they are
usually consumed whole or after drying the flesh is removed after boiling the
dried fruits in water. The dried
chiles develop flavors that are distinct from the fresh fruit and are more
often used as a traditional spice. Juniperus communis has berries that are used as
a flavoring substance. This is a
small tree or prostrate shrub with evergreen needlelike leaves and a
berrylike cone, formed by the fleshy coalesced scales. It is native to the cooler parts of Asia,
Europe and North America. The berries
have a sweetish pulp with a typical gin like aroma. They are purple in color with a greenish bloom. When dried they are used in flavoring wild
game and various meats, but more typically for gin. The volatile oil that is extracted from crushed berries by
steam distillation is also used for flavoring gin and in some medicines. This kind of pepper has been an
important spice in the East since ancient times. It was important to the early Greeks and Romans, and was the
principal spice used during the Middle Ages when tributes were often levied
in pepper. As early as 1180 AD the
Guild of Pepperers was one of the leading trade guilds in England. London still retains its identity as the
center of the pepper trade. The high
prices charged for pepper was one of the main incentives for the search for a
sea route to India. Black Pepper, Piper
nigrum, is a vine indigenous to India or the Indo-Malayan region. It is now cultivated everywhere in the
Eastern tropics from Africa to India, Thailand, the Philippines the East
Indies and the South Sea Islands. The
plant is a weak climbing or trailing shrub with adventitious roots that reach
a length of 30 ft. in the wild state.
It has coriaceous evergreen leaves and very small flower4s in
catkins. The fruits are small
one-seeded berry-like drupes, about 50 to a catkin. In ripening they change in color from green to bright red and
then to yellow. Pepper requires a hot
humid climate and at least partial shade.
Various soils can be used. The
plants are supported on posts or living trees. When they reach about 2 ft. in height the tip is removed to
promote the development of lateral buds.
The crop begins to yield in 2-3 years and reaches full bearing in 7
years. Propagation is by seed or
cuttings from the tips of the vines. The preparation of black pepper of
commerce involves gathering the fruits when at least a few of the berries in
each spike are red. They are picked
by hand. The spikes are dried in the
sun or in smoke and are sometimes treated with boiling water before
drying. When dry the berries or
peppercorns are rubbed off, winnowed and packed for shipment. They are reddish brown or black with a
wrinkled surface and measure 3-5 mm. in diameter. White Pepper is the same
species as white pepper but it is prepared from berries that are nearly
ripe. They are picked and piled-up to
ferment or are soaked in water. The
pulp and outer coating of the seed are then removed. White pepper is a yellowish gray color and
the surface is smooth. Oftentimes
white pepper is prepared from black peppercorns by grinding off the outer
parts by machine. Although not as
pungent as black pepper, white pepper is often preferred in the trade. Commercial ground pepper is often a blend. The aromatic odor of pepper is due
to a volatile oil, while the pungent taste is the presence of an
oleoresin. An alkaloid is also
present. Pepper stimulates the flow
of saliva and gastric juices and has a cooling effect. The culinary uses are numerous, and it is
especially valuable as a condiment.
Pepper by itself as well as the oleoresin and alkaloid are used in
medicine. The alkaloid is used as a
source of synthetic heliotrope. Long pepper is derived from Piper retrofractum,
of Java and Piper longum of India.
The first species is a climbing woody plant native to Malaya but is
cultivated in Java, Bali and adjacent islands. The latter species is more of a shrub and is native to India,
Sri-Lanka and the Philippines. It is
grown extensively in Bengal. The
Romans preferred long pepper to black pepper. The tiny fruits are fused into cylindrical spike like
cones. These are collected when
unripe and dried quickly in the sun or over fires. Long pepper contains the same principles as black pepper, but
is more aromatic and sweeter. It is
grown in the same manner as black pepper.
It is used chiefly in the tropics in pickles, preserves and curries. This is the fruit of a small evergreen tree, Illicium
verum, probably native to China.
The star-shaped reddish-brown fruits consist of eight carpels, each
with a hard shiny seed. Both the
seeds and the fruit are aromatic with a flavor of anise. The plant is cultivated from seed only in
southern China and Viet Nam. It
requires special climatic conditions for development. The tree yields from 6-100 years of age,
often producing two crops per year.
The fruits re collected before they are ripe and are dried or are
immediately distilled for the oil.
Star anise is used as a culinary spice in Eastern cooking. It is often chewed to sweeten the breath
and aid digestion. The oil is used in
medicine as a carminative, expectorant and flavoring and also in liqueurs,
aperitifs and perfumery. Vanilla planifolia is a climbing orchid, native
to the hot humid forests of tropical America. The flavoring material is obtained from the cured, fully grown
but unripe fruits. It was extensively
used in Pre-Columbian America. The
Europeans who found the Aztecs using it to flavor chocolate, carried vanilla
to Europe. It soon reached the
Eastern tropics and was cultivated in many areas. The plant is a climbing vine with fleshy adventitious
roots, large succulent leaves and greenish-yellow flowers. The fruits are long, thin, yellow, pod
like capsules known as vanilla beans.
Vanilla is a wholly tropical species and requires a hot climate with
frequent rains. In cultivation it is
grown from cuttings and is trained on posts or living trees. The flowers are pollinated by hand. The flavor and aroma of vanilla is not present in the
pods until they have been cured. The
unripe fruits are picked at just the right time and submitted to a sweating
process. They are exposed to the sun
during the morning, and are then protected by covers during the
afternoon. At night they are placed in
airtight boxes. During this curing
process a glucoside is changed by enzyme action into a crystalline substance,
Vanillin, which possesses the characteristic odor
and flavor. The pods become tough and
pliable and very fragrant, and turn dark brown in color. Frequently crystals of vanillin appear on
the surface. Vanilla is cultivated in
many tropical areas where an island climate is particular favorable. Mexico, the Seychelles Islands,
Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, Reunion, Tahiti, Dominica, Puerto Rico and
Guadeloupe are principal producing areas.
West Indian or Pompona Vanilla is
obtained from Vanilla pompona, a species with shorter, thicker pods. Vanilla is used to flavor chocolate, ice cream, candy,
puddings, cakes, beverages, etc. Sometimes
the beans are used but more often an extract is prepared by soaking the
crushed beans in alcohol. The
manufacture of synthetic vanillin from eugenol, which occurs in clove oil,
has threatened the vanilla industry, but the natural product has a superior
flavor. Several other plants have
been used as substitute for true vanilla, but they are of inferior quality. The family Umbelliferae is
characterized by the possession of aromatic fruits. These fruits consist of two one-seeded carpels, or mericarps,
with numerous oil ducts containing essential oils. The mericarps separate readily and are so seed like in
appearance that they are often called seeds.
These savory “seeds” are usually used whole for flavoring. The most common commercial species are
anise, caraway, celery, coriander, cumin, dill and fennel. Pimpinella anisum is mentioned in writings of
the Hebrews, Greeks and Romans and was highly valued during the Middle Ages
for its real or reputed medicinal value.
Anise is an annual, about 2 ft. tall with simple or ternate basal
leaves and pinnate stem leaves. The
small fruits are grayish brown and covered with short hairs. Anise is extensively cultivated in Europe,
Asia Minor, India, Mexico and parts of South America. It is indigenous in the Mediterranean
region. It is used for flavoring
cakes, curries, pastry and candy. The
oil is distilled and used in medicine, perfumery, soaps and other toilet
articles and beverages. The liqueur
anisette is widely used, especially in Southern Europe. Carum carvi is a native of Europe and Western
Asia, but has become widely distributed in temperate regions of both
hemispheres, often occurring as a weed.
It was cultivated in Europe before the time of the Lake Dwellers. The plant is a perennial with thick roots,
compound leaves with linear segments and small white flowers. The brown fruits are slightly curved and tapering. These “seeds” are used by the baking
industry, in perfumery, medicine and beverages, such as the liqueur Kűmmel.
Caraway is grown commercially throughout Northern Europe and in parts
of North America. Celery “seeds”, Apium graveolens var. dulce, are
used in flavoring foods. These fruits
are small and dark brown with a pronounced celery flavor. The oil has some medicinal value, but is
used mainly for flavoring in the form of an extract. Salt flavored with celery-seed oil or the
ground seeds, is in great demand for culinary purposes. Coriandrum sativum, native to the Mediterranean region, is
mentioned in Egyptian, Sanskrit, Hebrew and Roman literature. During the Middle Ages it had many strange
uses, such as love potions, incense, etc.
The plant is widely grown in Europe, Morocco, India and South Hispanic
America. It is a perennial, 3-ft. in
height with small white or pinkish flowers.
The lower leaves have broad segments while the upper are very narrow. The globular yellow-brown fruits have a
characteristic odor when fresh and are often used in salads and sauces. Some find the odor offensive. The dried fruits are pleasantly aromatic
and serve as a common flavoring for both sweet and savory foods, especially
in Europe and India. The fruits are
frequently candied in a sugar solution and sold as “sugar plums.” Oil of coriander is used in medicine and
in flavoring beverages, such as gin, whisky and various liqueurs. The extract is superior to either the
dried fruit or the oil for flavoring. Cuminum cyminum has been cultivated for such a
long period that it is impossible to determine its place of origin. It most likely originated in the
Mediterranean area. The plant is an
attractive small annual with small pinkish flowers. The elongated oval fruits are light brown and hot and
aromatic. Cumin was valued highly by
the ancients and is frequently mentioned in the Bible. Today is widely grown in Southern Europe,
India and warmer parts of North America.
The fruits are used in soup, curries, bread, cake, cheese and pickles
and often are candied. The oil is
used in perfumery and for flavoring beverages. Anethum
graveolens, indigenous to Eurasia, still grows wild in many places. It was known in ancient Greece, Rome and Palestine
where it was held in high esteem. It
is cultivated in Europe, India and North America. The plant is a small annual or biennial with light green leaves
and yellow flowers. The “seeds” are
oval, light brown and very compressed.
In North America dill is used mainly for flavoring pickles. In France, India and other countries it is
widely used in soups, sauces and stews and for other culinary purposes. Dill oil is frequently used as a
substitute for the seeds. Both the
seeds and the oil are used in medicine.
The leaves are becoming more widely used in salads.
Foeniculum vulgare has an interesting history. Native to the Mediterranean region, it has
spread all over the world and often occurs as an escape from
cultivation. The ancient Chinese,
Hindus and Egyptians knew it as a culinary spice. The Romans cultivated it for its aromatic fruits and edible
shoots. It is essential in modern
French and Italian cuisine. All parts
of the plant are aromatic and are utilized in various ways. Fennel is a tall perennial with finely
divided leaves and yellow flowers.
The “seeds” are oval and greenish or yellowish brown. They are used in cooking and for candy and
liqueurs. The oil is used in
perfumes, medicine and soaps. The
thickened leafstalks of one variety, Finochio or
Florence fennel (F. vulgare var. dulce) are blanched and used as a
vegetable. The aromatic seeds of the cardamom, Elettaria
cardamomum, have been an important spice in the Orient for
centuries. The plant is a native of
India and is cultivated mainly in that country and Sri Lanka. It has also been introduced into other
tropical areas. Large quantities are
grown in Central America, especially Guatemala. It is a perennial herb, 6-12 ft. tall, with long lanceolate
leaves with sheathing bases. The
white flowers, with a blue and yellow lib, are borne on a separate elongated
stalk. The fruits that are triangular
paper-thin capsules are borne the year round. The small seeds are light colored and have a delicate
flavor. They are usually kept in the
fruit until required for the flavor is superior. In other cases seeds of either wild or cultivated plants are gathered
when completely ripe and dried in the sun.
Few spices are handled with greater care. Cardamoms are used in cakes, pickles, and curries and for other
culinary purposes, as well as in medicine.
They are a popular masticatory in India. The oil is used to some extent in cooking and in flavoring
beverages. Trigonella foenum-graecum, is an annual legume with
white flowers and long slender pods with a pronounced beak. It is native to Southern Europe and Asia
where it is grown for forage and ornamental purposes. The small seeds are used in India for
curries, in dyeing and in medicine.
The extract is used with other aromatic substances to make an
artificial maple flavoring. Aframomum melegueta is a perennial herb of West
Africa that is the source of the aromatic seeds known as Grains of
Paradise. The plant has large
rootstalks that send up an erect stem, 8 ft. or more in height, with long
fragrant leaves and showy yellow orchid like flowers in dense spikes. The fruits are orange pear-shaped capsules
that contain the golden brown seeds with a distinctive aroma. These seeds are very pungent and during
the Middle Ages rivaled pepper as a spice.
They are still used somewhat in medicine and for flavoring
beverages. Other species of Amomum
are sometimes utilized as substitutes. Mustard was widely known since
ancient times. It is frequently
mentioned in the Bible and in Greek and Roman writings. During its long history it has had some
curious uses. It is now grown as a
field crop in most temperate regions, especially North America, Europe, China
and Japan. Mainly cultivated for its
seeds, the tops are used as potherbs and salad plants. There are three main species utilized:
white, black and Indian mustard Brassica hirta is a freely branching annual, 2-6
ft tall, with yellow flowers, hairy lobed leaves and a bristly pod with a
long beak. The small round seeds are
yellow on the outside and white within.
They contain mucilage, proteins, a fixed oil and a glucoside, Sinalbin.
When ground seeds are treated with water this glucoside is broken down
through enzyme activity and yields a nonvolatile sulfur compound with a
typical sharp taste and pungency.
White mustard is used in medicine and as a condiment. The fixed oil is expressed and used
externally as a counterirritant. It
is also used as a lubricant and illuminant. Brassica nigra is also native to Eurasia. It is grown more commonly, and has become
a weed in North America. It is
cultivated especially in California, Montana and Kentucky. The plant is smaller than the white
mustard and has smooth pods with dark brown seeds that are yellow on the
inside. Black mustard seed has the
same general constituents as white mustard seed. The glucoside, Sinigrin yields on
decomposition a volatile oil containing sulfur, which is responsible for the
pungent, aromatic odor and flavor.
This essential oil is very powerful and dangerous to handle as it can
blister the skin. It also attacks the
membranes of the eyes and nose. When
diluted it is used in medicine as a counterirritant and to some extent in
condiments. The expressed fixed oil
has a mild taste. It is used in
making soap and in medicine. Ground mustard is widely used as a condiment and in
preparing pickles, sardines and salad dressing. It has a stimulating effect on the salivary glands and also
increases the peristaltic movements of the stomach. Mustard and warm water form an efficient emetic. The more pungent black mustard is preferred
in continental Europe while white mustard is more popular in England. However, ground mustard is usually a
combination of both kinds. The
familiar mustard paste is prepared by treating ground mustard with salt,
vinegar and various aromatics. Brassica juncea is used in India and parts of
Europe as a spice and in cooking. Its
properties are similar to those of black mustard. The fixed oil is expressed and used in cooking and to anoint
the body. Both nutmeg and mace are obtained from Myristica
fragrans, native to the Moluccas or Spice Islands. It is now grown in the tropics worldwide,
especially in the East Indies and the West Indies. These spices were probably not known to the ancients. However, they had reached Europe by the
12th Century. The discovery of the
spice Islands in 1512 led the Portuguese to obtain a monopoly of nutmeg and
mace, which later was dominated by the Dutch. Later trees were smuggled into French and British possessions
and the monopoly was broken. The plant is a handsome evergreen tree with dark leaves
that reaches a height of 30-60 ft. It
is usually dioecious, with small pale-yellow flowers that are fleshy and
aromatic. The ripe fruits are
golden-yellow and resemble apricots or plums. They gradually dry out and when completely ripe the husk splits
open revealing the shiny brown seed covered with a bright-red branching
aril. The kernel inside the seed is
the nutmeg of commerce. The aril is
the source of mace.
nutmeg is propagated
from seed in nurseries and later transplanted. It needs a hot moist climate and thrives when near the sea, so
that islands are very favorable for its growth. The trees come into full bearing when about 20 years old and
contuse for 30-40 years. The yield is
very high, a large tree furnishes about 1,000 nutmegs annually. Fruits are produced all year round. After the husks split open the fruits are
picked, the pericarp is removed and the made is stripped from the shell,
flattened and dried. it turns a
yellowish brown. The seeds are dried
and the shell cracked off. The
kernels are removed, sorted and often treated with lime to prevent insect
attack. Mace is a very delicately flavored spice and is used
with savory dishes and in making pickles, ketchup and sauces. Nutmegs have been used medicinally and as a culinary
spice for centuries. Grated nutmeg is
used with puddings, custards and other sweet dishes and with various beverages. A jelly is made from the fresh husks of
the ripe fruit. An essential oil is
extracted for use in medicine and as a flavoring agent. This oil contains a very toxic substance, Myristicin, and can be used only in small
amounts. Caution must also be
exercised in the use of nutmeg and mace.
nutmeg oil is used in the perfume and tobacco industries and in
dentifrices. Nutmegs contain a fixed
oil, called nutmeg butter. The South American trees, Dipteryx odorata and D.
oppositifolia, are the source of Tonka beans. They serve as a substitute for vanilla. Most of the commercial supply is from
Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil. The
large trees, up to 110 ft tall, have strange egg-shaped fruits with a hard
shell and pulpy flesh surrounding a single seed. The fallen fruits are collected, broken open and dried. These resemble Jordan almonds and have a
black wrinkled surface. They contain
a crystalline substance, Coumarin, which is of
importance in the manufacture of perfumes.
The odor is that of new-mown hay, and closely suggests vanilla. The beans, or an alcohol extract are used
for flavoring tobacco, cosmetics, perfumes, soap, liqueurs, as a substitute
for vanilla in cocoa, candy and ice cream and as a fixative for dyes. The aromatic leaves of many plants
frequently have been used to flavor foods and for their medicinal
qualities. Many of these belong to
the mint family that is identified by its aromatic odor, square stems and
small bilabiate corollas. Some of the
more important mints are basil, peppermint, balm, marjoram, savory, sage,
thyme, spearmint, bay , parsley, terragon and wintergreen. Sweet basil, Ocimum
basilicum, is most likely native to India and Africa. It has been used in India for centuries as
a condiment and in England because of its aromatic qualities. The leaves are used in salads, stews
dressings as an ingredient of mock turtle soup and Fetter Lane sausages. Basil is also very popular in French and
Italian cookery. The golden-yellow
essential oil is used in perfumery and various beverages. There are several varieties. Mentha piperita is one of the most important of
the aromatic herbs. It is a perennial
found wild in moist ground in the temperate parts of Asia, Europe and
America. It is cultivated in Europe
and has been an important crop plant in America for since the 18th
Century. Mucky soils that are
unsuitable for other types of agriculture are ideal. The crop is harvested with mowing machines
when in blossom and after drying it is hauled to distilleries. Peppermint has a refreshing odor and a
persistent cooling taste. The leaves
are used for flavoring but the oil, obtained by steam distillation, is of
greater importance. The oil is used
to flavor candy, gum, dentifrices and various pharmaceutical
preparations. It is valuable in both
internal and external medicine and in the perfume and soap industries. Because of its penetrating odor it has
often been used to detect leaks in pipes. Peppermint camphor or menthol, a derivative of the oil extracted
by freezing, is valuable as an antiseptic and has been used in the treatment
of the common cold. Japanese peppermint, Mentha arvensis var.
piperascens, is cultivated in Japan, Brazil and North America as the main
source of methol. Although the
menthol content is higher than in Mentha piperita, both the oil and
the camphor are very bitter and less valuable. Melissa officinalis is a perennial herb of
Southern Europe that has been introduced into all temperate climates. It has been cultivated since before 100
B.C. and was well known to the Greeks, Arabs and Romans. The leaves are used in stews, sauces,
soups, dressings and salads. The
essential oil has a lemon flavor and is used in beverages. The flowers are an important source of
honey. Sweet marjoram, Majorana hortensis, is
indigenous in the Mediterranean region where it has been known since ancient
times. It is a sacred plant in India
and is popular both in Europe and North America. The leaves, flowers and tender stems are used for flavoring
syrups, dressings, stews and sauces.
The essential oil is used for perfumes and soap. Pot Marjoram,
Origanum vulgare, is also used as a substitute. <bot680>
Marjoram in flower (Majorana hortensis) [Mediterranean] (ex.
Riverside, CA) Satureja hortensis is native to the
Mediterranean region but is now grown worldwide. The leaves are strongly aromatic with a warm bitter
taste. Its principal use is in
sauces, dressings and gravies. It was
used as a potherb during Roman times.
Winter savory, Satureja montana is of some importance in
Europe. Salvia officinalis has been a valued spice for
use in making stuffing for meats, sausage and fowl. It adds zest to Italian cookery. The plant is a shrubby herb of the Mediterranean region. The grayish green hairy leaves are very
aromatic. It has been used for its
reputed health benefits since Roman times.
Oil of sage is used in the perfume industry. <bot681>
Sage (Salvia officinalis) [Mediterranean] (ex.
Riverside, CA) Thymus vulgaris is indigenous to the
Mediterranean region where it is widespread as a wild plant. It has escaped cultivation in most
countries and often escapes. Thyme
has been used since the time of the Greeks and Romans as incense and as a
source of honey, the latter being distinctive and of high quality. The fresh or dried green parts of this low
shrubby plant are used in sauces, soups, dressings and gravies. The oil is used in perfumery. Thymol, a
derivative of the oil, is antiseptic and is used in mouthwashes, toothpastes,
as a fungicide and as an internal medicine where it is effective against
hookworm. It also has some industrial
uses. Mentha spicata is native to temperate Asia and
Europe. It is now common
worldwide. It was known before the
Christian era. Both fresh and dried
leaves are used for jelly, mint sauce and to flavor soups, sauces, stews and
beverages. It is also used in chewing
gum, candy, dentifrices and medicine.
The plant resembles peppermint but has longer and lighter colored
leaves and more pointed spikes. It is
mild in flavor. Sweet bay, Laurus nobilis, is a small tree
native to Asia Minor. It is very
ornamental and is often cultivated.
The leaves constituted the laurel of antiquity, the symbol of victory. These leaves are bitter and aromatic and
are widely used in cooking. Bay is
extensively grown in Europe where the leaves are used in puddings, soups and
other culinary products. It is an
ingredient of the “bouquet” the small bunch of sweet herbs used widely by the
French. The essential oil was once
used in medicine. Bay leaves also
contain a fixed oil. Petroselinum crispum is one of the most widely
cultivated garden herbs. It is native
to the rocky shores of the Mediterranean, but has escaped from cultivation in
all moist cool climates. The plant is
usually biennial and during the first year produces a dense tuft of dark
green finely divided leaves. The
leaves are used as a garnish and for flavoring soups, stuffing and
omelets. They are a good source of
Vitamin C. In Europe the tops are
often used for potherbs and the roots as boiled vegetables. Artemisia dracunculus is a small herbaceous
perennial of Western Asia that is widely grown in Europe for its pungent, aromatic
leaves, which are used in making vinegar and pickles. It is also used for
seasoning salads, soups and various meats.
The tender shoots can also be utilized. The essential oil is used to perfume toilet articles. Wintergreen or Checkerberry
is important as a flavoring in North America. The original source was Gaultheria procumbens, a low
creeping evergreen plant with flat, dark green shiny leaves that grows wild
in eastern North America. The leaves
contain a glucoside, which breaks down in water to form methyl salicylate or
oil of wintergreen. The oil is
distilled from the leaves in copper stills.
It was once an important industry in New England. The sweet birch, Betula lenta,
contains the same glucoside in its bark and the young twigs and bark of this
plant have generally displaced the checkerberry as the source of oil. The oil is used in medicine and in
flavoring candy, soft drinks, chewing gum and dentifrices. Other plants that contain aromatic oils and that are
used to some extent in medicine and for flavoring are certain mints, such as Catnip, Nepeta cataria, Clary
Sage, Salvia sclarea, Hyssop, Hyssopus
officinalis, and European Pennyroyal,
Mentha pulegium. Some that belong
to other plant families include Chervil, Anthriscus
cerefolium, Lovage, Levisticum officinale,
Rue, Ruta graveolens, and Tansy,
Tanacetum vulgare. Misc. Spices & Flavoring Substances Various other plants that are used
as flavorings but which are discussed in other section include calamus root,
almonds chives, garlic, hoarhound, cubebs, lavender, lemon, lime, orange,
pistachio, orris root, poppy seeds, sesame and rosemary. |