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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF ARTHROPODS IN
RANGE, FORAGE & GRAIN CROPS
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Introduction Crops included in this category are alfalfa, sorghum,
sugar beets and cereal grains. Principal pests are Coleoptera, Lepidoptera
and Homoptera. Research effort is on integrated pest management, when the
short-term nature of a crop, such as rice, tends to obstruct
self-perpetuating classical biological control. Rice.--The striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis
(Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is distributed through southern Europe, the
Middle East and Asia (Kahn et al. 1991). It feeds on the Poaceae, attacking
more than 38 species of grass (Kinoshita & Kawada 1932, Kiritani &
Iwao 1967, Romena and Heinrichs 1989, Kahn et al. 1991). it is one of the
most injurious pests of cultivated and wild rice (Oryza spp.) (Kiritani & Iwao 1967, Hattori 1971,
Reissig et al. 1986). The life cycle and biology of C. suppressalis
was described by Banerjee & Pramanik (1967), Kiritani * Iwao (1967) and
Pathak (1968). The pest lays its eggs in masses on the grass stem or leaf
base, above the water line. During the first few days after hatching the
neonates crawl between the leaf sheath and stem and feed on external plant
tissue. Thereafter the larvae bore into the stem and feed for the rest of
their larval period within the lumen (3-4 instars). Feeding by larval stem
borers results in the severing of the stem apical to the point of damage.
During Oryza's vegetative
stage this results in the condition "dead heart," where the central
leaf whorl does not unfurl, but dries out and turns brown. In the flowering
stage, the panicle (seed stalk) dries out and takes on a whitish coloration
as a result of stem borer feeding, a condition called "white
heart." Pupation occurs in the lumen of the basal or middle internodes
and follows the creation of a small circular exit hole produced for the
escape of the adult moth. Mating occurs shortly after emergence from the stem
and females lay ca. one mass every three days for 1-2 weeks. The life cycle
requires 4-60 days, depending on temperature. In tropical areas such as the
Philippines there are two or more rice crops annually, and stem borers are
present year round (Cedaņa & Calora 1967). Control of stem borers in rice have involved chemical
pesticides, varietal resistance and the use of natural enemies (Kiritani
1972, 1977, 1979; Kahn et al. 1991). Even though cultural practices have
aided in reducing crop damage, other methods are still required (Loevinsohn
et al. 1988). These borers are difficult to control with pesticides because
they are protected within the grass stem throughout much of their life cycle.
Control is only achieved after repeated foliar applications (Bess 1967,
Prakasa-Rao et al. 1970). Emphasis has focused on the development of stem
borer resistant varieties of rice because this approach is economical,
durable and not hazardous to humans and beneficial organisms (Chaudhary et
al. 1984, Heinrichs 1986). Screening of rice germplasm for resistance against
C. suppressalis started in 1962 by the International Rice
Research Institute, and by 1991 more than 17,000 breeding lines were
evaluated (Kahn 1991). Except for several wild species of Oryza, varieties of cultivated
rice (O. sativa) have proven to be only
moderately resistant to stem borers (Chaudhary et al. 1984, Romena &
Heinrichs 1989). There are ca. 100 species of parasitoids and 38 predators
known to attack the striped stem borer (Kahn 1991). There are unknown numbers
of bacteria, nematodes, viruses and fungi also able to attack this borer.
Parasitism of the egg stage is high compared to lower rates of predation and
parasitism of larval, pupal and adult stages (Bess 1967, Yasumatsu 1967, 1976;
Yasamatsu & Torii 1968). Egg parasitoids in the genera Telenomus, Tetrastichus and Trichogramma
can achieve a level of control that is near 100% in some years or areas
(Rothschild 1970, Catling et al. 1983, Kim & Heinrichs 1985, Kim et al.
1986). A prominent parasitoid is Tetrastichus
schoenobii Ferriere (Hym.,
Eulophidae) (Reissig et al. 1986, Kahn et al. 1991). Tetrastichus schoenobii parasitizes stem borers of rice, corn, sugarcane, wheat
many other grass species on Southeast Asia and India. Kahn et al. (1991)
reported a total of 10 stem borer hosts. Although all juvenile stages of the
striped stem borer are attacked, eggs suffer the highest parasitism (Reissig
et al. 1986). This species is endoparasitic in stem borer eggs, but later
instars of the parasitoid become predaceous on other host eggs within the egg
mass (Rothschild 1970, Kim & Heinrichs 1985). An average of three host
eggs are required to complete the larval period. Egg to adult eclosion
requires ca. 9 days, and wasps mate immediately on emergence (Rothschild
1970, Bhuiyan & Sufian 1986). Both males and females multiply mate
(Bhuijan & Sufian 1986). Mating in females is followed by a 24-h delay in
oviposition, after which they begin to search for hosts (Bhuiyan & Sufian
1986). Wasps continually mature eggs during their lifetime (Rothschild 1970,
Chao et al. 1979) and parasitize an average of 14 hosts per egg mass per day
(Ding et al. 1986). Males and females life for 12-23 days, respectively
(Bhuiyan & Sufian 1986). Range Grasses-- Biological
control of Rhodesgrass mealybug ,Dusmetia sangwani (Rao) , was achieved by airplane releases of an introduced parasite of
limited dispersing ability. Schuster
(1965-67, 70, 73,
76, Schuster et al. 1971). The parasitoid
Anagyrus antoninae was, was imported to Texas from India where it provided
completely biological control [please
see<ch-94.htm>]. REFERENCES: [Additional references
may be found at MELVYL Library ] Banerjee, S. N. & L. M. Pramanik. 1967. The
lepidopterous stalk borers of rice and their life cycles in the tropics, p.
103-24. In: The Major Insect
Pests of the Rice Plant. Proc. Symp. IRRI. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
MD. Baumgaertner, J. U., A. P. Gutierrez & C. G. Summers.
1981a. The influence of aphid prey consumption on searching behavior, weight
increase, developmental time, and mortality of Chrysopa carnea
(Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) and Hippodamia
convergens (Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae) larvae. Canad. Ent. 113: 1007-14. Baumgaertner, J. U., B. D. Frazer, N. Gilbert, B. Gill, A.
P. Gutierrez, P. M. Ives, V. Nealis, D. A. Raworth & C. G. Summers.
1981b. Coccinellids (Coleoptera) and aphids (Homoptera): the overall
relationship. Canad. Ent. 113: 975-80. Bellows, T. S., Jr. & T. W. Fisher, (eds) 1999. Handbook
of Biological Control: Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San
Diego, CA. 1046 p. Bess, H. A. 1967. Feasibility and problems of chemical
control of rice stem borers (research on the natural enemies of rice stem
borers). Mushi 39 (Suppl.): 45-60. Bhuiyan, B. A. & M. A. Sufian. 1985. Biological studies
of Tetrastichus schoenobii Ferriere (Hymenoptera:
Tetrastichidae), an egg parasite of yellow rice borer, Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker). Bangladesh J. Zool. 14: 75-82. Burton, V. E., C. G. Summers, K. S. Hagen & V. M.
Stern. 1987. Insects and mites, p. 1-13. In:
IPM Manual Group, Univ. Calif., Davis, Alfalfa Pest Management Guidelines. Burton, V. E., C. G. Summers, K. S. Hagen & V. M.
Stern. 1989. Alfalfa pest management guidelines 1989. Univ. Calif., UCPMG
Publ. No. 2. 14 p. Catling, H., D. Z. Islam & B. Alam. 1983. Egg
parasitism of the yellow rice borer, Scirpophaga
incertulas (Lep.: Pyralidae)
in Bangladesh deepwater rice. Entomophaga 28: 227-39. Cedaņa, S. M. & F. B. Calora. 1967. Insect pests of
rice in the Philippines, p. 591-616. In:
The Major Insect Pests of the Rice Plant. Proc. Symp. IRRI. Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore, MD. Chang, T. 1976. The origin, evolution, cultivation,
dissemination, and diversification of Asian and African rices. Euphytica 25:
425-41. Chao, C., S. Chang & F. Doong. 1979. The influence of
environmental factors on the reproductive capacity of Tetrastichus schoenobii
Ferr. Acta Ent. Sin. 22: 289-93. Chaudhary, R. C., G. S. Khush & E. A. Heinrichs. 1984.
Varietal resistance to rice stem-borers in Asia. Insect Sci. Applic. 5:
447-63. Cothran, W. R. & C. G. Summers. 1971. Biology and
control of the Egyptian alfalfa weevil, Hypera
brunneipennis (Boh.) in
California. Proc. Alfalfa Prod. Symp, Fresno, CA., Dec 7-8, 1971. p. 59-62. Cothran, W. R. & C. G. Summers. 1972. Sampling for the
Egyptian alfalfa weevil: a comment on the sweep-net method. J. Econ. Ent. 65:
689-91. Cothran, W. R., C. G. Summers & D. Gonzalez. 1971.
Egyptian alfalfa weevil-- population and ecology research. Calif. Agr. 25(5):
5. Cothran, W. R., C. G. Summers & C. E. Franti. 1975.
Sampling for the Egyptian alfalfa weevil: comparison of two standard sweepnet
techniques. J. Econ. Ent. 68: 563-4. Ding, D., H. Qui & J. Du. 1986. Host recognition and
host acceptance behavior of Tetrastichus
schoenobii, p. 173-80. In: Trichogramma and Other Egg Parasites, 2nd Internatl.
Symp., Guangzhou, China. INRA, Paris. Gutierrez, A. P., C. G. Summers & J. Baumgaertner.
1979. The phenology and distribution of aphids in California alfalfa. Canad.
Ent 112: 489-95. Gutierrez, A. P., J. U. Baumgaertner & C. G. Summers.
1983. A case study in an alfalfa ecosystem. Canad. Ent. 116: 950-63. Gutierrez, A. P., J. U. Baumgaertner & C. G. Summers.
1984. Multitrophic models of predator-prey energetics. Canad. Ent. 116:
923-4. Hattori, I. 1971. Stem borers of graminaceous crops in
Southeast Asia. Internatl. Symp. Rice Insects. Trop. Agr. Res. 5: 145-53. Heinrichs, E. A. 1986. Perspectives and directions for the
continued development of insect resistant rice varieties. Agr. Ecosyst.
Environ. 18: 9-36. Kahn, Z. R., J. A. Litsinger, A. T. Barrion, F. F. D.
Villanueva, N. J. Fernandez & L. D. Taylo. 1991. World Bibliography of
Rice Stem Borers 1790-1990. IRRI, Los Baņos, Philippines. Kim, H. S. & E. A. Heinrichs. 1985. Parasitization of
yellow stem borer eggs (YST) Scirpophaga
incertulas eggs. IRRI
Newsletter 10: 14. Kim, H. S., E. A. Heinrichs & P. Mylvaganam. 1986. Egg
parasitism of Scirpophaga incertulas Walker (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae) by hymenopterous parasitoids in IRRI rice fields. Korean J. Plant
Prot. 25: 37-40. Kinoshito, S. & A. Kawada. 1932. A revision of the rice
borers (Chilo) and their
distribution. J. Imp. Agr. Expt. Stn. 2: 97-104. Kiritani, K. 1972. Strategy in integrated control of rice
pests. Rev. Plant Prot. Res. 5: 76-104. Kiritani, K. 1977. Recent progress in the pest management
of rice in Japan. JARQ 11: 40-9. Kiritani, K. 1979. Pest management in rice. Ann. Rev. Ent.
24: 279-312. Kiritani, K. & S. Iwao. 1967. The biology and life
cycle of Chilo suppressalis (Walker) and Tryporyza (Schoenobius) incertulus
(Walker) in temperate-climate areas, p. 45-101. In: The Major Insect Pests of the Rice Plant. Proc. Symp.
IRRI. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD. Lamp, W. D., K. V. Yeargan, R. F. Norris, C. G. Summers
& D. G. Gilchrist. 1986. Miltiple pest interactions in alfalfa, p.
345-64. In: R. E. Frisbie
& P. L. Adkisson (eds.), Integrated Pest Management on Major Agricultural
Systems, Texas A. & M. Univ., College Sta., TX. Lehman, W. F., C. G. Summers & V. L. Marble. 1990.
Notice of release of UC 73 germplasm with resistance to Egyptian alfalfa
weevil, Hypera brunneipennis (Boheman). Crop
Sci. Loevinsohn, M. E., J. A. Litsinger & E. A. Heinrichs.
1988. Rice insect pests and agricultural change, p. 161-82. In: M. K. Harris & C. E.
Rogers (eds.), The Entomology of Indigenous and Naturalized Systems in
Agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder, CO. Pathak, M. D. 1968. Ecology of common insect pests of rice.
Ann. Rev. Ent. 13: 257-94. Pike, K. S., D. Allison, L. Boydston, C. O. Qualset, H. E.
Vogt & C. G. Cummers. 1989. Suction trap reveals more than 60 species of
aphids, including the Russian wheat aphid, a new pest in California. Calif.
Agr. 43(6): 22-4. Pimentel, D. & A. G. Wheeler, Jr. 1973. Species
diversity of arthropods in the alfalfa community. Environ. Ent. 2: 659-68. Prakasa-Rao, P. S., Y. S. Rao and P. Israel. 1970. Problems
and prospects in the chemical control of rice stem borers. Oryza 7: 89-102. Read, D. P., P. P. Feeny & R. B. Root. 1970. Habitat
selection by the aphid parasite Diaeretiella
rapae (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae) and hyperparasite Charips
brassicae (Hymenoptera:
Cynipidae). Canad. Ent. 102: 1567-78. Reissig, W. H., E. A. Heinrichs, J. A. Litsinger, K. Moody,
L. Fiedler, T. W. Mew & A. T. Barrion. 1986. Illustrated Guide to
Integrated Pest Management in Rice in Tropical Asia. IRRI, Los Baņos,
Philippines. 411 p. Romena, A. M. & E. A. Heinrichs. 1989. Wild species of
rice Oryza spp. as sources
of resistance to rice insects. J. Plant Prot. Trop. 6: 213-21. Rothschild, G. H. L. 1970. Parasites of rice stemborers in
Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo). Entomophaga 15: 21-51. Schuster, M. F.
1965a. Studies on the biology
of Dusmetia sangwani (Hymenoptera--
Encyrtidae). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.
58: 272-75. Schuster, M. F.
1965b. Comparative virulence
of Texas and California polyhedrosis virus of the cabbage looper. J. Rio Grande Valley Hort. Soc. 19: 87-8. Schuster, M. F.
1967a. Notes on Endodusmetia sangwani in Texas). In: Internatl. Adv. Com. Biol. Control, Biol.
Control Inform. Bull. (Comm. Inst. Biol. Control) 2: 60. Schuster, M. F.
1967b. Response of forage
grasses to rhodesgrass scale. J.
Range Management 20: 307-09. Schuster, M. F. & J. C. Boling. 1970. Biological
control of rhodesgrass scale in Texas by Neodusmetia
sangwani (Rao); effectiveness
and colonization studies. Texas A.
& M. Univ. Tech. Rept. Schuster, M. F. & H. A. Dean. 1973. Rhodesgrass scale
resistance studies in rhodesgrass. J.
Econ. Ent. 66: 467-69. Schuster, M. F. & H. A. Dean. 1976. Competitive
displacement of Anagyrus antoninae ([Hym.: Encyrtidae]
by its ecological homologue Neodusmetia
sangwani [Hym.:
Encyrtidae]. Entomophaga 21: 127-30. Schuster, M. F., J. C. Boling & J. J. Marony, Jr. 1971.
Biological control of Rhodesgrass scale by airplane releases of an
introduced parasite of limited dispersing ability. p. 227-50. In: C. B. Huffaker (ed.), "Biological Control." Plenum Press, N.Y. Shang, Z. Z. & Y. S. Wanga. 1984. Study on the
utilization of artificial diets for Chilo
suppressalis Walker. Insect
Knowledge 21: 5-9. Stern, V. M., R. Sharma & C. G. Summers. 1980. Alfalfa
damage from Acyrthosiphon kondoi and economic threshold
studies in southern California. J. Econ. Ent. 73: 145-8. Summers, C. G. 1975. The blue alfalfa aphid-- biology and
economic thresholds. Proc. Alfalfa Prod. Symp, p. 49-52. Dec. 10-11, Fresno,
CA. Summers, C. G. 1976a. Aprostocetus
diplosidis, a parasite of
the sorghum midge found in California. Pan Pacific Ent. 52: 80-1. Summers, C. G. 1976b. Population dynamics of selected
arthropods in alfalfa: influence of two harvesting practices. Environ. Ent.
5: 103-10. Summers, C. G. 1988. Cultivar and temperature influence on
development, survival, and fecundity in four successive generations of Acyrthosiphon kondoi (Homoptera: Aphididae).
J. Econ. Ent. 81: 516-21. Summers, C. G. 1989a. Insect pests of forage alfalfa. Proc.
1989 Alfalfa Symp., Univ. Nevada, Reno. Special Publ. 89-1. p. 134-46. Summers, C. G. 1989. Effect of selected pest and multiple
pest complexes on alfalfa productivity and stand persistence. J. Econ. Ent.
82: 1782-91. Summers, C. G. & R. L. Coviello. 1984. Impact of Acyrthosiphon kondoi (Homoptera: Aphididae)
on alfalfa: field and greenhouse studies. J. Econ. Ent. 77: 1052-6. Summers, C. G. & A. S. Newton. 1986. The leafhopper (Empoasca spp.) complex in
California alfalfa: impact on yield nad quality. Proc. 16th Calif. Alfalfa
Symp, p. 124-28, Dec. 11-12, 1986. Sacramento, CA. Summers, C. G. & A. S. Newton. 1987. Low temperature
decreases CUF 101 alfalfa resistance to blue alfalfa aphid. Calif. Agr.
41(9/10): 11-12. Summers, C. G. & A. S. Newton. 1989a. Economic
significance of the sugarbeet root aphid, Pemphigus
populivenae Fitch
(Homoptera: Aphididae) in California. J. Appl. Agr. Res. 4(3): 162-7. Summers, C. G. & A. S. Newton. 1989. Relationship of
herbivore imposed stress to weeds in alfalfa. Environ. Ent. 18: 958-63. Summers, C. G., R. L. Coviello & W. R. Cothran. 1975a.
The effect on selected entomophagous insects of insecticides applied for pea
aphid control in alfalfa. Environ. Ent. 4: 612-4. Summers, C. G., R. L. Coviello, W. E. Pendery & R. W.
Bushing. 1975b. Sorghum midge pest management in the San Joaquin Valley.
Calif. Agr. 29(9): 4-5. Summers, C. G., R. E. Garrett & F. G. Zalom. 1984a. New
suction device for sampling arthropod populations. J. Econ. Ent. 77: 817-23. Summers, C. G., R. L. Coviello & A. P. Gutierrez.
1984b. Influence of constant temperatures on the development and reproduction
of Acyrthosiphon kondoi. Environ. Ent. 13:
236-42. Temple, S. R., C. G. Summers & V. E. Burton. 1987.
Managing aphids and viruses to reduce losses to beet yellows. The Calif.
Sugar Beet. p. 19-20. Temple, S. R., V. E. Burton, C. G. Summers & M. Kirk.
1989. Epidemiological studies of beet yellows virus in California. J.
Sugarbeet Res. 26(1): 24-5. Temple, S. R., M. Kirk & C. G. Summers. 1990. Pest
management and sugarbeet production. Calif. Sugarbeet 89: 19, 29. Yasumatsu, K. 1951. Further investigations on the hymenopterous
parasites of Ceroplastes rubens in Japan. J. Kyushu
Univ. Fac. Agr. 10: 1-27. Yasumatsu, K. 1953. Preliminary investigations on the
activity of a Kyushu race of Anicetus
ceroplastis Ishii which has
been liberated against Ceroplastes
rubens Maskell in various
districts in Japan. Sci. Bull. Kyushu Univ. Fac. Agr. 14: 17-26. Yasumatsu, K. 1958. An interesting case of biological
control of Ceroplastes rubens Maskell in Japan. Proc.
10th Intern. Congress Ent. (1956) 4: 771-75. Yasumatsu, K. 1967a. Distribution and bionomics of natural
enemies of rice stem borers (research on the natural enemies of rice stem
borer). Mushi Suppl. 39: 33-44. Yasumatsu, K. 1967b. Notes on Bracon onukii
Watanabe, a parasite of four species of lepidopterous borers [Hymenoptera:
Braconidae]. Mushi, Fukuoka 40: 181-8. Yasumatsu, K. 1969. Biological control of citrus pests in
Japan. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 773-80. Yasumatsu, K. 1972. Activity, scope and problems in rice
stem borer research. Mushi Suppl. 45: 3-6. Yasumatsu, K. 1976. Rice stem borers, p. 121-37. In: V. L. Delucchi (ed.),
Studies in Biological Control. Cambridge Univ. Press, London. Yasumatsu, K. & T. Tachikawa. 1949. Investigations on
the hymenopterous parasites of Ceroplastes
rubens Maskell in Japan. J.
Kyushu Univ. Fac. Agr. 9: 99-120. Yasumatsu, K. & T. Torii. 1968. Impact of parasites,
predators and diseases on rice pests. Annu. Rev. Ent. 13: 295-324. Yasumatsu, K. & C. Watanabe. 1965. A tentative
catalogue of insect natural enemies of injurious insects in Japan. Pt. II.
Host-parasite-predator catalogue. Kyushu Univ. Faculty Agr., Ent. Lab. 116 p. Yasumatsu, K., K. Nomura, S. Utida & T. Yamasaki. 1953.
Applied Entomology. Asakura Publ. Co., Ltd., Tokyo. 296 p. [in Japanese]. Yasumatsu, K., T. Nishida & H. A. Bess. 1968. On the
extinction of the Asiatic rice borer Chilo
suppressalis in Hawaii.
Hawaii. Ent. Soc. Proc. 20: 239-45. |