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BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL IN TROPICAL &
SUBTROPICAL ORCHARDS Crops in this
category include coconut, oil palms, macadamia, avocado, banana, pineapple
citrus, coffee, cocoa, guavas and passion fruit, almonds and olives.
Principal pests are fruit flies, scale insects and fruit piercing and
scavenger moths (Bennett et al. 1976). Many tropical
and subtropical crops are raised successfully in temperate climates of
California South Africa, Australia and the Mediterranean where winter
temperatures are moderate, and tropical pests that have moved with these
crops often do not pose as severe a threat as in their places of origin.
However, several species can become problematic at time, and some temperature
zone pests have moved over to tropical plants when the latter appear in their
territory. Citrus of all the tropical crops has been most successfully
adapted to temperate regions where the added stress of winter even stimulates
fruit production. Avocados because of the origins of several species at high
elevations in the Neotropics are also adapted to temperate climates. However,
the latter sustain comparably fewer pest species than citrus in such areas.
Almonds have sustained invasions of damaging proportions on a few occasions,
with notable pests being navel orangeworm and peach twig borer. The
references in this section stress work performed on crops in and for tropical
regions of the world below 24° Lat., while greater detail on tropical
crops in temperate regions may be found in the Case History, Coccidae and
regional sections especially. Please see Research #1 for greater
detail. REFERENCES: [Additional references
may be found at MELVYL
Library ] Anonymous. 1971. A big bet on biological
control. Citrograph 56: 315-16, 327. Annecke, D. P. 1969. Recent developments
in biological and integrated control of citrus pests in South Africa. Proc. 1st
Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 849-54. Annecke, D. P. & M. J. Mynhardt.
1972. The species of the insidiosus group of Metaphycus Mercet
in South Africa with notes on some extralimital species (Hymenoptera:
Encyrtidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 85: 227-74. Argov, Y. & Y. Rössler. 1988.
Introduction of berneficial insects into Israel for the control of insect
pests. Phytoparasitica 16: 303-15. Argyriou, L. C. 1963. Studies on the
morphology and biology of the black scale [Saissetia oleae
(Bernard)] in Greece. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki, N.S. 5: 353-77. Argyriou, L. C. 1974. Data on the
biological control of citrus scales in Greece. Bull. SROP 1974/3: 89-94. Argyriou, L. C. 1984. Present status of
parasite complex in olive groves in Greece, p. 177-78. In: R.
Vavalloro & A. Piavaux (eds.), C.E C. Programme on Integrated and
Biological Control. Final Report 1979/83. Comm. European Comm., Directorat,
Luxembourg. Argyriou, L. C. & P. DeBach. 1968.
The establishment of Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) (Hymenoptera:
Encytidae) on Saissetia oleae (Bern.) (Homoptera: Coccidae) in
olive groves in Greece. Entomophaga 13: 223-28. Awibowo, R. 1934. Der Klapperbladkever, Brontispa
froggatti var. celebensis, ein zijn biologische bestrijding op
Celebes (Voorloopige mededeeling). Landbouw. Buitenz. 10: 76-92. Baranowski, R. M. & R. W. Swanson.
1971. The utilization of Parachasma cereum (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae) as a means of suppression Anastrepha suspensa
(Diptera: Tephritidae) populations. Proc. Tall Timbers Conf. Ecol. Anim.
Contr. Habitat Managem. 3: 249-52. Bartlett, B. R. 1960. Biological races
of the black scale, Saissetia oleae, and their specific
parasites. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 53: 383-85. Bartlett, B. R. 1963. The contact
toxicity of some pesticide residues to hymenopterous parasites and
coccinellid predators. J. Econ. Ent. 56: 694-98. Bartlett, B. R. 1969. The biological
control campaigns against soft scales and mealybugs on citrus in California.
Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp., Riverside, Calif. 2: 875-78. Bartlett, B. R. 1978. Coccidae. In:
C. P. Clausen (ed.), Introduced Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests
and Weeds. U. S. Dept. Agric. Agric. Handbk. No. 480, Washington, D.C. 545 p. Bartlett, B. R. & C. F. Lagace.
1961. A new biological race of Microterys flavus introduced
into California for the control of lecaniine coccids, with an analysis of its
behavior in host selection. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 54: 222-27. Bartlett, B. R. & D. C. Lloyd. 1958.
Mealybugs attacking citrus in California-- a survey of their natural enemies
and the release of new parasites and predators. J. Econ. Ent. 51: 90-3. Bartlett, B. R. & R. A. Medved.
1966. The biology and effectiveness of Diversinervus elegans
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), an imported parasite of lecaniine scale insects in
California. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 59: 974-76. Bartlett, K. A. 1939. Introduction and
colonization of two parasites of the pineapple mealybug. Univ. Puerto Rico J.
Agr. 23: 67-72. Bartlett, K. A. 1941. The introduction
and colonization in Puerto Rico of beneficial insects parasitic on West
Indian fruit flies. Univ. Puerto Rico J. Agr. 25: 25-31. Barzman, M. S., K. M. Daane & L. E.
Caltagirone. 1990. Distribution of progeny in Metaphycus zebratus,
a parasitoid of black scale. 74th Ann. Meet., Pacific Br. Ent. Soc. Amer.,
Spokane, WA. Beardsley, J. W., Jr. 1969. The
Anagyrina of the Hawaiian Islands (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with descriptions
of two new species. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 20: 287-310. Bedford, E. C. G. 1968. The biological
control of red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Mask.), on citrus in
South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Afr. 31: 1-15. Bedford, E. C. G. 1973. Citrus scale
insects biological control proves successful. Citrus SubTrop. Fruit J., Feb.,
1973. p. 5-17. Bedford, E. C. G. & E. D. Thomas.
1965. Biological control of the citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi
(Ashby) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Afr. 28:
117-32. Bedford, G. O. 1971. Virus release
programme in Fiji. Report of the Project Manager for the Period June 1970 - May
1971, p. 234-39. [UNDP(SF)/SPC project for research on the control of the
coconut palm rhinoceros beetle.] South Pacific Comm., Noumea, New Caledonia. Beingolea, G. O. 1956. Estatus actual de
la plaga de la quereza negra del olivo (Saissetia oleae Bern.)
en los valles de Yauca e Ilo. Bol. Trimest. Extp. Agropecuarias (1955) 4:
18-22. Beingolea, G. O. 1969. Biological
control of citrus pests in Peru. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2:
827-38. Bellows, T. S., Jr. & T. W. Fisher,
(eds) 1999. Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications.
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p. Bellows, T. S., Jr. & J. G. Morse.
1988. Residual toxicity following dilute or low-volume applications of insecticides
used for control of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae) to four
beneficial species in a citrus agroecosystem. J. Econ. Ent. 81: 892-98. Benassy, C. 1969. The biological control
against coccids of citrus in the country of the French zone. Proc. 1st Int.
Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 793-99. Bennett, F. D. 1971. Some recent
successes in the field of biological control in the West Indies. Rev. Peru.
Ent. 14: 369-73. Bennett, F. D. & I. W. Hughes. 1959.
Biological control of insect pests in Bermuda. Bull. Ent. Res. 50: 423-36. Bennett, F. D., D. Rosen, P. Cochereau
& B. J. Wood. 1976. Biological control of pests of tropical fruits and
nuts, p. 359-95. In: C. B. Huffaker & P. S. Messenger (eds.),
Theory and Practice of Biological Control. Academic Press, New York, San
Francisco, London. 788 p. Berry, N. O. 1955. Mexican fruit fly and
citrus blackfly control in Mexico. J. Econ. Ent. 48: 414-16. Bess, H. A. 1964. Populations of the
leaf-miner Leucoptera meyricki and its parasites in sprayed and
unsprayed coffee in Kenya. Bull. Ent. Res. 55: 59-82. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1982.
Comparative studies of the development of two species of Metaphycus
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), introduced into Israel for the control of the
Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier)
(Homoptera: Coccidae). Acta Oecol. Oecol. Appl. 3: 281-86. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1988.
Colonization of Metaphycus spp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for control
of the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Homoptera:
Coccidae), in Israel, p. 1209-13. In: R. Gore & K. Mendel (eds.),
Proc. 6th Internatl. Citrus Cong., Tel-Aviv, Israel, Mar. 6-11, 1988. Balaban
Publ., Philadelphia. Bodenheimer, F. S. 1951. Citrus
Entomology int he Middle East. W. Junk Publ., The Hague. 663 p. Bou…ek, Z. 1988.
Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): a biosystematic revision of genera
of fourteen families with a reclassification of species. C.A.B. Internatl.,
Oxon. p. 351. Bromberger, D., K. M. Daane & L. E.
Caltagirone. 1990. Use of black scale host plants to increase parasite
activity in olive orchards. Calif. Olive Comm., Ann. Crop Rept. 1989. Brown, E. S. 1959a. Immature nutfall of
coconuts in the Solomon Islands. I. Distribution of nutfall in relation to
that of Amblypelta and of certain species of ants. Bull. Ent. Res. 50:
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coconuts in the Solomon Islands. II. Changes in ant populations, and their
relation to vegetation. Bull. Ent. Res. 50: 523-58. Bustillo, A. E. & A. T. Drooz. 1977.
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on Oxydia trychiata in Colombia. J. Econ. Ent. 70: 767-70. Caballero, C. F.f 1951. Notas biológicas
y económicas sobre la conchuela negra (Saissetia oleae). Agric.
Tec. (Santiago, Chile) 11: 54-63. Callan, E. McC. 1943. Natural enemies of
cacao thrips. Bull. Ent. Res. 34: 313-21. Caltagirone, L. 1957. Insectos
entomófagos y sus huéspedes anotados para Chile. Agr. Tec. (Santiago de
Chile) 17: 16-48. Carter, W. 1937. Importation and
laboratory breeding of two chalcid parasites of Pseudococcus brevipes
(Ckll.). J. Econ. Ent. 30: 370-72. Clausen, C. P. 1956a. Biological Control
of Insect Pests in the Continental United States. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech.
Bull. No. 1139. 151 p. Clausen, C. P. 1956b. Biological control
of fruit flies. J. Econ. Ent. 49: 176-78. Clausen, C. P. & P. A. berry. 1932.
The citrus blackfly in Asia, and the importation of its natural enemies into
tropical America. U. S. Dep. Agr. Bull. 320. Clausen, C. P., D. W. Clancy & Q. C.
Chock. 1965. Biological control of the Oriental fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis
Hendel) and other fruit flies in Hawaii. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 1322. Cochereau, P. 1969. Installation de Tetrastichus
brontispae Ferr. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasite de Brontispa
longissima Gestro, var. froggatti Sharp (Coleoptera:
Chrysomelidae: Hispinae) dans la presqu'lle de Noumea. Cah. ORSTOM Ser. Biol.
7: 139-41. Cochereau, P. 1970a. Recherches aux
Nouvelles-Hébrides de Pleurotropis parvulus Ferr. (Hymenoptera:
Eulophidae), parasite de Promecotheca pulchellus Gestro
(Coleoptera: Hispinae), et expéditions sur la Cote d'Ivoire. Nouméa, N.
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